




'^M 



mgmmglt^fljam 



'QwvayijL 



mw^^ym^ 



fflffityySSiS s«»tawi!5 



*y^^w^"„-M 



■mmKm::^& 



WM^^i^^^mmmi^''::vy^- 



^■g/i/VVU^wvvg, 



'^^^^o.rv.v'^v 



^VWwwwv'. 






iU^»<, -vvvvi^' V 



^ai'wu^'^i Jil^^- ", ■: • ^/ - ^W^'^^^^^^^M 



'WV«^QV^ 



,1.1, ; -.■■■,v iUi \;; .V" : • -^'-'v, ,w', ;VV' 



I'LIB RiRYOrCONGRESS.il 






:^%ii#^" 



w^^wswu^ 



I UNITED STATES OF AMERICA 



M^m^^^Simn 









m^-m 



w.. vi^ur^Vi 



"■:fi??s«#^y»#k^^ 



"^«^vi:/«^«^^^*vw&^^, 



' •■ ..v..vvw-^%. .^-yr 



(Vvyv*' 



m^m'^'^m-i 



mm 



wmm-m^^ymm 






*^.'^^-^;v!^,^^^ 



:^:>I^^Ch 



Ja : ,^^^^^^^ 



^V^V^Wv^w^^.^^^^,, 



;:^v'v ^wV^Wwg' 



>^WUWW^^'«^"'^VV -,^wc;^^'2'>^i 



VVVWVy; 



i^M' 



Uwov^^V^-^v^W^VV 



M^y\jW''lZ > 






,:£S;»9iiipm 



..v&^vv***^^;:^^^t 



WVv^'^SVv 






,il£kD-^v 



^'!¥5gi!^5' 



^^mm^rn 



'WWWVw^^w^^ 






gS*|»S$#VV*W*"'^ff 



^Si^gSfe*- 



g*iPHuuS*vv^^^ 



w^Cr'^W*' 



i^JivCV^VV^;^, 



:-r-rWwwwwww!^!:^yv^^^yv,, 



liTT^iiiTOiMMfmffli 











^WV^Vy^ vs;/ Vv^^ ^v- ^, -' ^ ■ ^^^ 









'« ':!!¥% 



WwS 



. ,=..- - vm 



C3«¥W^»W^V^^'-!w^VW 



i^^iSgtf**^..^ 



'Sv.W 



VWWVVw^'>"» 



yv:wvvvvvv 



-?iM*^i^^w*w.w,*- 






V, ,.^v^wi 






^,-^^«*vjvgv^«:^^vv&iS 



(V^^^--^* 



B,lSs*«i«Bte«««^^ ■ '^?li^S*"V>' 







AN IMPROVED AND COMPREHENSIVE 

SCHOOL GRAMMAR, 

CONTAINING ALL THE ESSENTIAL PRINCIPLES OF THE SCIENCE 
USUALLY FOUND IN OTHER WORKS : 

T^ITH AN ADDITION OF MUCH THAT IS NEW, CRITICAL, AMD 
HIGHLY APPROVED BY COMPETENT JUDGES. 



AN 



IMPROVED AND C OMP EE HENSI VB 



SCHOOL GRAMMAR; 



IN WHICH ARE EQUAL£.Y REGARDED BOTH THE WAxNTS OF THE BEGINNER 
AND THOSE OF THE ADVANCED AND CRITICAL STUDENT: 



COOTAINING ALL THE ESSENTIAL PRINCffLES OF THE SCIENCE USUALLY FOUND IN OTHES WOEKS: 



WITH AN ADDITION OF MUCH THAT IS NEW, CRITICAL, AND HIGHLY APPROVED BY 

COMPETENT JUDGES, 







BY A NOETH AMERICAN TEACHKB. 

GARDINER: ' 

PRINTED FOR THE AUTHOR BY A. M. C, HEATH. 

1855. 



^ 






DIRECTIONS TO THE TEACHER. In using this book, tlie Leglnner will first commit the ckaaitlona of the Indicative and Sub- 
junctive moods, and of the present and Imperfect tenses, found on the 5th page, facing his parsing lesson. The teacher will look up 
all the irregular verbs in the first parsing lesson, and put a pencil mark at the left of each in the Catalogue, which begins on 27j:h 
page of the last part of the work. The pupil will then become familiar with the present and imperfect forms of those irregular verbs 
down the first half of the first parsing lesson, and which the teacher has marked in the Catalogue. And befoi-e he has his second 
Bpell of parsing, he will become thus acquainted with the rest of those verbs. The teacher will at the same time call his attention to 
the pattern verb move on 5th page, showing him that viove, viovest, and moves are present tense, and moved and movedst, imperfect; 
and \fh\ch. person and number each is. Thus the pupil will see that come, contest, comes; leave, leavest, leaves, are present tense, and 
thai came, earnest; left, leftest, are imperfect tense. Thus the pupil will commit them: Present come, Imperfect came; Present leave, 
Imperfect left; and so on of the rest. Or he can give the variations: Present leave, Uavest, leaves; Imperfect left, lefiesi, &c. He 
will commit the letters or signs, at the foot of this page, by which the parts of speecli are distinguished in the first four lessons; also 
the articles, a, an, (he, distinguishing the definite from the indefinite. Thus prepared, which will seldom exceed an hour, and often 
not half an hourj the pupil will enter on p.irsing lesson 1. He will immediately attem.pt to distinguish whether it is the Indicative, or 
the Imperative^mood ; the Present, or Imperfect tense, the teacher guiding his mind a little at first. He will tell which kind of article 
it is, and to what noun it belong^?, — the teacher having told him that the article always belongs to the next noun forward. Of the 
other words, he will at first merely name which part of speech they are. After parsing three or four sentences, the pupil's attention 
should be called to the definition of singular and plural number, on page 3d, the teacher il^^tratiug the same to him in a few happy 
examples, and giving him a few others to decide upon. The pupil will now tell which number the noun is. After having parsed a 
few more sentences,, tlie teacher will proceed to make him acquainted with the three persons, in the same manner as he did with the 
number of the noun, — adding that pronouns are of three persons, but that nouns are either second or third. He now tells which 
person the noun is, as well as which number. When half Wc^y down the lesson, and perhaps a little sooner, he may be introduced to 
three new things at the same time, as they seem to be somewhat bound together; namely, what the verb agrees with, and what noun 
or pronoun the adjective and participle refer to; the teacher having previously shown how. He now tells what the verb agrees with, 
and what the adjective and participle refer to, in addition to the things he told before. He now gives the rule when pai^sing an article, 
adjective,, verb, or participle, — fii'st by reading it aloud. When he leaves for a new page, it is designed to have the rules on the 
preceding page committed. He will now tell Avhich number and person the verb is, by comparing it with the pattern verb on the right 
hand page. When he comes to a pi'onoun, he will now begin to tell its number, person, and case, by finding its situation among the 
pronouns on 5th page. Before entering on page 6th, he is shown that most of the verbs in that lesson are in the Subjunctive mood — 
that there are four new tenses introduced, which are defined on page 7th, and the construction of verbs for those tenses, as well as for 
number and person, is there strikingly exhibited to the eye in the verb move. The pupil will dwell a few moments on the definition of 
that mood, and of those tenses, look at the signs and constructions of them below, then enter on lesson 2. In this lesson the auxiliary 
verbs or signs of the additional tenses, are in Italic letters. He compares them with those like th-em on page 7th, and decides on the 
tense; thus he shortly learns to know these tenses at sight. Thus the teacher will proceed to take up one new thing after another, 
according to the evident design of these lessons, — previously preparing the pupil for each subsequent step — exercising judgement how 
fast to introduce new things. This will depend partly on the age, or cap^acity of the pupil. When about half through lesson 2, he 
may commence to tell whether the verb is transitive or intransitive. He should tell its object when transitive ; also the object of a 
preposition when he parses one. This will be acquainting him with objective case. He will begin to distinguish and tell the three 
cases in lesson 4. The government of the infinitive mood need not be taken up till through lesson 5. The qualification of adverbs will 
be commenced about this time. The discerning teacher will see what new object is aimed at in each numbered paragraph of the sub- 
sequent lessons. The learner will commit in silence, fi^om day to day, the necessary tilings between the 2d and 12th pages, com- 
mitting first what is wanted first. 

n a ail p pr pe v e i 

Noun, Adjective, Adverb, Pronoun, Preposition, Participle, Verb, Conjunction, Interjection. If, though, unlesSj-excvptyhefore a 
Terb, denote the Subjunctive mood. 

For Prefiice, see "Advertisement to the Public," on 2d page of the last part of the work. 
Mntered according to an act of C'ongress,,i?ii the year 1855, by A..M. C. Heath, i?i the Clerk's Office of the District Court of Maine.. 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



English Gr.\5imar is the art of speaking and writing correct English. 
-^ Vvords are conveniently divided into ten sorts, the names of which are Article, Noun, Pronoun, Adjective, Verb, 
»W Participle, Adverb, Preposition, Conjunction, and Interjection. 

ARTICLE, xln Artich is a word placed before a nouu to limit its signification. There are two articles, a or on, and 
[^ the. A or an is an indefinite article. The is a definite article. The indefinite article limits the noun to one of a kind, 

but generally to no particular one. The definite article limits the noun to one or more particular objects. 
^ NOUM". A Noun is the name of any person, place, or thing. Nouns are of two kinds, common and proper. A 

,i rommon noun is a name common to all of the same kind, class, sect, or family. A proper noun is applied only to indi- 
yj yiduals. To nouns belong gender, person, number, and case. 

Gexder, in English Grammar, is a distinction in the form or termination of nouns as expressive of the sex. There 
are two genders, masculine and feminine. The masculine gender denotes a male ; 2i^, Man, king. poet. The feminine 
gender denotes a female ; as, Woman, queen, poetess. 

Person, in grammar, is that quality of a noun or pronoun, which gives a certain modification to the verb ; as. Thou 
writest, he icritcs. Person is also applied to a noun or pronoun as expressing the person speaking, spoken to, or spoken 
of. Hence there are three persons — first, second, and third. 

The first person denotes the person speaking. The second person denotes the person or thing spoken to. The third 
person denotes the person or thing spoken of. 

Number, applied to a noun or pronoun, is that form of the word by which it expresses one, or more than one. Nouns 
are of two numbers, singular and plural. The singular number denotes but one object. The plural number denotes more 
objects than one ; thus, Pen is a singular noun because it means but one pen ; pens is a plural noun because it means 
more pens than one. So man is a singular noun, and men a plural one. 

Case is the difi\irent state or situation of nouns with regard to other words. Case is also emplo3''ed to denote the form 
of the noun or pronoun. Nouns have three eases — a nominative, a possessive, and an objective case. The nominative 
case denotes the doer of an action or the subject of a verb. The possessive case -denotes possession or ownership ; as, 
John's book. The objective case is the object on which the action of a verb or partici-ple terminates, or the object of a 
preposition. 

PRONOUN. A Pronoun is a word used instead of a noun to avoid a too frequent use of the same word. Pronouns 
are of tAvo kinds, personal and relative. 

Personal pronouns stand closely for the name of some person or thing. 

Relative pronouns relate, in general, to some precwding noun or personal pronoun, which is therefore called the ante- 
cedent. They are -who, which, and that. That is often an adjective or a conjunction. The same that belong to nouns, 
belong also to pronouns. They have three persons. He is masculine gender, and she feminine. The other pronouns 
are wanting in gender. 

ADJECTIVE. An Adjective is a word which expresses the quality or number of some person or thing, 
Noun adjectives are a limited class of words, vrhich are sometimes used as adjectives, and sometimes as nouns. 
Adjectives are varied only to express degrees of comparison. They have three degrees of comparison, — a positive, a 
comparative, and a superlative degree. 

The positive degree expresses the quality of an object without any increase or diminution ; as, ivise, great, good. 
The comparative degiee increases or lessens the positive in signification ; as, iciser, greater, less ivise. 
The superlative degree increases or lessens the positive to the highest or lowest degree ; as, icisest. greatest, least ivise. 
^ Some adjectives do not admit of comparison, the qualities which they express not adpaitting of increase or diminu- 
tion ; as, round, right, suprcrne. 



COMPREHENSIVE GRAMMAR. 



VERB. A Verb is a word which expresses action or being. Verbs are of three kinds, transitive, intransitive, and 
passive. 

A transitive verb has an object, and expresses action or influence which terminates on it. 

An intransitive verb denotes simply being or existence, or it denotes action which is limited to the subject. 

A passive verb denotes action received or endured by the person or thing denoted by its nominative. It is formed by 
annexing the elliptical participle of a transitive verb to the verb ^e, through all its changes of number, person, mood, 
and tense. To verbs belong number, person, mood, and tense. 

PxiRTICIPLE. A participle is a word derived from a verb, and denotes action or being similar to the verb. It has* 
two forms to express a difference of time, which are called present and perfect. The present participle denotes present 
time, or time present with regard to some past action or event ; as, Moving ; being moved. The perfect participle refers 
to past time ; as, Having moved; having been moved. Participles in their nature are transitive, intransitive, and pas- 
sive, like the verbs from which they are derived. Passive participles are often elliptical. 

Adverb. An Adverb is a part of speech generally used to qualify the sense of verbs, participles, adjectives, and 
adverbs. Many adverbs admit of comparison ; as. Soon, sooner, soonest. 

PREPOSITION. A Preposition is a part of speech which serves to connect words and show the relation between 
them. 

CONJUNCTION. A Conjunction is a word that is chiefly used to connect sentences, joining two or more simple 
sentences into one compound one. It sometimes connects only words. 

INTERJECTION. An Interjection is a word used to express passion or emotion, usually that which is violent or 
sudden ; as. Oh ! ah ! alas I 



n V a n V 

Parsing Lesson 1. The boys study. The studious pupil learns. 

n V pr n * p V n pr n 

The stranger came on Monday. He left town on Wednesday. 

nvpra n nv anpv a 

John, sit in this chair. James, take a new pen. I lost the old 

n n V n n v n 

pen. Titus destroyed the temple. Washington freed America. 

nva n nr npr 

Sarah, make smooth marks. Susan, light the candles. I wrote 

pnpran n vpnprn n 

jny name with bad ink. Thomas sold his cane to William. Jane 

vpnpran nvcpv 

gave her oranges to a sick woman. The moon shone as we came 

n nva n vaan 

home. The sun shines clear. Samuel, bring some cold water 

pr n V ann nvprn 

from the well. Make a large fire, boys. Girls, recite in concert. 

n V pi- n pr n pr a n n 

The elephant walked from Castine to Bangor, in nine hours. Boys, 

V n pr n pr n a n v pr 

read a chapter of the Bible, by turn. Large trees grow in the 

n a nvprpn n pv 

field. The sweet apples grew in my father's garden; we bought 

anpr n n v an pv 

the sour ones of a neighbor. Eliza wrote a long letter. I see the 

n pr n p v pr a n c y 

coach at the Post-Olfice. He sits in an easy chair, and reads a 

n n V a n pr a n pr n 

newspaper. Seth , prepare some fuel for a good fire in the morning. 

pvpr n pvaprpn 

They retired into the country. We are happy with our friends. 

ad V p pr n P v pr n ad p v 

When were you in the city ? She was at home when I arrived. 



V p pr a n n v n pr n n 

Art thou in good health? Frank, call the boys into school. Eliza 

V n n V a pr p a n n 

loves Harriet. Jane, be kind to your little brother. Alexander 

V n n V n pr n pr 

conquered the Persians. Esther obtained favor in the sight of the 



pr 



P 



pr 



king. The children depend on their teacher for explanation. Girls, 

vpnadnvn n nn 

study your lessons well. Ruth fed Jane's kitten. Virtue's paths 

V a c a ad p V anpv 

are peaceful and safe. When thou doest a good deed, thou art 

aprpp vpnpv an 

happier for it. Thou dost improve thy time. I have a new book. 

p V an n V an p v pr p 

Thou hast a silver pen. Peter has a keen knife. She sat by his 

n p V pr n pr n p v pr n a 

side. He goes to church on Sunday. They went to York last 

npva cpv a ad 

spring. He was unfortunate because he was inconsiderate. When 

pv nvppv nan 

thou hcarest the bugle, wake me. They began the work last week. 

nvn nvcvpr 

The term begins to-day. The assembly rose and stood before the 

n n n pe a pr n v ad 

chieftain. Caesar's troops, being eager for an onset, rushed furi- 

pr n a n V a n 

ously on the foe. Bad habits require immediate reformation. Tlie 

n v pr n n v pr n p n 

ship lies at the wharf. The ladies walk in the park. My son, 

V n pr p n c v ad n pr p 

hear the counsel of thy father, and forsake not the law of thy 

n pr p a nva c a 

mother. In your whole behavior be humble and obliging. 



COMPUEHENSn-E GRAMMAR 



Mood (or mode) is the manner of expressing action or being. 

The Indicative Mood simply indicates or declares a thing, or asks a question. The Imperative Mood commands, 
exhorts, or entreats. 

Tbnse is the distinction of time. 

The Present Tense denotes present time. The Imperfect Tense refers to pa^st time however distant. 

The verb Mote — Indicative Mood. 



Mov^ 

Movest 

Moves ^ 

Moved 
Movedst 



Present Tense. 

is plural and 
first person 

singular, 
is second person 

singular, 
is thira person 
singular, 
Imperfect Tense. 

i is plural and 
\ first and third 
( person singular, 

!is second person 
singular, 

The verb Bj 
Singular number. 
2. Be, be thou, or do thou be. 



Present Tense. 
i We, ye or 
< you, they,- move, 
( or 1 



Thi 



Th( 



movest. 



Thus. 



Ho, she, 

or it 
Imperfect Tense. 
We, ye or 
you, they, 

I or he 



moves. 



moved, 



Thou 



movcdfct. 



Ipxiperative Mood. 

Plural number. 
2. Be, be you or ye, or do you or ye be. 





Dccleisslon 


of the Pers©Esa3 


Prouoims. 




First Person, 


Second Person, 


Third Person, 


Third Person, 


Third Person, 


Singular. 


Singular. 


Singular. 


Singular. 


Singular. 


JVom. I. 


JV. thou* or you,* 


m he, 


JV. she. 


A^. it, 


Poss. my or mine 


P. thy or thine. 


p. his. 


P. her or hers. 


P. its, 


Obj. me. 


your or yours, 
0. thee or you. 


0. him. 


0. her. 


0. it. 


Plural. 


Plural. 


Plural. 


Plural. 


Plural. 


JVom. we. 


JV". ye* or you. 


JSr. they. 


A", they. 


JV: they, 


Pqss. our or ours 


P. your or yours, 


P. their or theirs, 


P. their or 'theirs. 


P. their or theirs, 


Obj. us. 


0. you. 


0. them. 10. them. 1 


0. them. 


* Thou and ye are confined to the grave style, whilst you and its variations are employed in 


the familiar style, for both the singular and the plural. 





the nouns vs'hich they define. 

^ULE 2. Ad3ecti\^s belong to 
the nouns which they qualify. 

Rule 3. A verb must a*gree 
vrith its nominative in number 
and person. 1. 

Rule 4. Participles like verbs 
refer to nouns or pronouns. 1,2. 

Rule 5. A pronoun must agree 
with its antecedent in gender, 
number, and person. 1, 2. 

Rule 6. A noun or pronoun being the subject of a verb, must be of the nom- 
inative case. (i. e. of ^he nominative form). 

Rule 7. Adverbs generally Qualify verbs, participles, adjectives, and adverbs. 
1, 2. 



Declension of the relative pronoun who 
and its compounds. -#■ 

Singidar and Plural. 
J>r. who, who-ever, who-soever, 
P. whose, whos-eyer, whose-soever. 
Auxiliary, or helping verbs, are those by the help of which the English verbs 0. whom, whom-ever, whom-soever . 
are principally conjugated. Those which are always auxiliaries, are may, can, must, might, could, icoidd, should, and 
shall. Those which are sometimes auxiliaries and sometimes principal verbs, are do, be, have, and will. 



* In the solemn style, moveth. 

t The figures following each rule refer to Notes relating to that Rule, in the last of the first part of the work. 



COHPBEHENSIVE GRAMMAR, 



p V pr n pr a 

Pausing Lesson 2. We have lived in the country since last 
n p vpnadpvp cpn 

May. They had lost their way when I saw them. If our desires 
V a pn va cpn vprn 

be moderate, our wants will be few. If our friend be in trouble, 
p vpp vanpr n 

we will console him. I have found new pleasure in the performance 
pr a a ' n p v a n pr 

of every svibsequent duty. He has received much assistance from 
pn en vpnn vp 

his friends. If James has lost his money, Jack will recover it. 

p vprnanad nvp 

They had been without water ten days, when a ship relieved them. 

cp vnpra n p v 

Unless he will do the work in a genteel manner. He had written 

ad p V p n c n v 

before he received my letter. If the man shall have accomplished 

p n pr n ad p v n 

his work by mid-summer. When thou hast received a favor, 

V p ad p v n V p n 

remember it ; when thou hast granted one, forget it. Henry hav- 

pe pr n v pr n pr n c 

ing graduated a^; college will enter upon the study of divinity if 
p - n '■ V '^ an v p n 

his health admit. The two houses will have finished their business 

ad n v v p c p v 

when the king comes to prorogue them. Unless ihou hast been 

a p ad V pr p n pe 

studious, I shall not award to thee the medal. Having resigned 

pnpvpra ncn v n en 

his oflSce he retired to private life, if history speaks truth. If pro- 

V pnp V p n cpv 

.inotion flatters our vanity, it multiplies our dangers. If we look 
pr p p V c a n v a pr 

around us, we shall perceive that the whole universe is full of 

ancn vadn v 

active powers. If youth be trifled away, manhood ivill be con- 

a c a n a ad p v 

temptible, and old age miserable. When thou ihali have subdued 

a n pr n ad p v n pr n 

all the races of men, then thou ivilt make war against rivers, 

n c a n vp vadp n c v 

forests, and wild beasts. Leave me, take ofi' his chains and use 

p ad c p V ijr n c ad v p 

htm well. If we contend about trifles an(;l violently maintain our 

n p Y ad a n 

opinions, we shall gain but few friends. 

a ♦ a n ad v p a c ad pr ad 

Will any future condition ever make us happy, if now, with so 

a n pr n p v p a n v 

few causes of grief, we imagine ourselves miserable ? The evil lies 

pr n pr p n ad pr p n pr n ad 

in the state of our mind, not in our condition of fortune. How 

ad n pr n V pr n pr p 

strangely are the opinions of men altered by a change in their 

n v n pr n pr p n v a 

condition! Reveal none of the secrets of thy friend. Be faithful 
pr p p V pr a n 

tQ his interest Beware of desperate steps. 



Parsing Lesson 5. Hope exhilarates the mind. Air la 
sensible to the touch bj its motion. x\ wise parent edu- 
cates his children properly. The lark on each morning 
waked me with her sprightly lay. The incense of gratitude 
perfumes and regales ourselves. Honest endeavors, if we 
persevere in them, Avill finally be successful. We should 
be cheerful Avithout levity. A steady mind may receive 
counsel. The rigor of monkish discipline often conceals 
great depravity of heart. We may be very busy to no use- 
ful purpose. A witty and humorous temper has often pro- 
duced enemies. The experience of want enhances the value 
of plenty. We may inure ourselves by custom, to bear the 
extremities of weather without injury. We should not en- 
courage persons to do evil. Precepts have small influence, 
when they are not enforced by example. If we injure 
others, we must expect retaliation. Esau sold his birth- 
right for a savoury mess of pottage. A negligent youth is 
generally ignoi-ant. The industrious bee reproves the 
slothful clown. An affable deportment w^Ill gain high es- 
teem. John will have earned his Avages when his service 
is completed. If thy neighbor shall trespass against thee, 
go and toll h;m his fault between him and thee alone. They 
may gain their ends. I would have prevented it. Father, 
I have sinned against Heaven, and before thee. All men 
have their frailties. W^hen thou hast received a favor, 
remember it ; when thou hast griinted one, forget it. God's 
goodness is conspicuous in all his works. Hast thou read 
Cowper's beautiful poems'? We have seen the husbandman 
scattering his seed upon the furrowed ground. 

I will restore thy daughter again to life, said an eastern 
sage to a prince, who grieved immoderately for the loss of 
a beloved child, provided thou art able to engrave on her 
tom,b the names of three persons who have never mourned. 
The prince made inquiry after such persons ; but found the 
inquiry vain and was silent. 

Yet day stole upon day, and month glided after month, 
till I found that seven years of the first ten had vanished. 
If thou hast found a friend, bind him to thee by acts of 
benevolence and kindness. Beware of desperate deeds ; the 
darkest day (if we live till to-morrow) will have passed 
away. The appearances of our security are frequently de- 
ceitful. In the midst of his studied refinements the volup- 
tuary languishes. The principal of the establishment had 
gone to Boston. A knowledge of the works of nature en- 
larges the understanding. By motion and exertion, the 
system of being is preserved in vigor. He was unfortunate 
because he was inconsiderate. Beware of those rash and 
dangerous connexions which afterwards may load you with 
dishonor. A dutiful son will hear his father's instruction. 
True politeness has its seat in the heart. 



C iM P li E H E K S I V E G R A 2d M A R , 



The Subjunctive Mood expresses action or being in a doubtful or conditional manner. It is used in all the tenses ; 
the present and imperfect having been exhibited in the 5th page. 

The Perfect Tense refers to past time and convej^s an allusion to the present. 

The Pluperfect Tense denotes past time, but as prior to some other past time spccilled. 

The First Future Tense simply denotes future time. 

The Second Future Tense refers to a future point of tim.e, which completes an act or a period of time, which is 
previously begun. 



Have moved 

Hast moved 
Has moved 



Had moved 



Hadst moved 



Perfect Tense. 

i is plural and 
< first person 
( singular, 
J is second person 
( singular, 
J is third person 
( singular, 
Pluperfect Tense. 

( is plural and 
•< first and third 
( person singular, 
( is second person 
( singular, 
First Future Tense, 

is plural and 
first and third 
person singular, 

is second person 
singular, 

Second Future Tense. 

is plural and 
first and third 
person singular, 
Shall or wi'It ( is second person 

have moved / sins-ular, 



Thus, 



Perfect Tense, 
i "We, ye or 
< you, they, 
( or I 

JThou 



He 



have mxoved. 

hast moved, 
has moved. 



Thus, 



Shall 

or 
vnll 
Shalt 

or 
wilt 



move 



move 



Th 



us, 



Shall or will 
have moved 



Thus, 



Pluperfect Tense. 
i We, ye or 
} you, they, 
( I or he 

JThou 

First Future Tense. 
( We, ye or 
} you, they, 
( I or he 

JThou 

Second Future 

We, ye or 

you, they, 

I or he 



had moved. 



hadi^t moved. 



shall 

or 
Vjill 
shalt 

or 
wilt 
Tense. 



move. 



move. 



Thou 



Singular. 

Present (^f^^*"', 

rp -< if thou be, 

^"^'''Xu he ie. 



The verb Be ->- Subjunctive Mood. 
Plural. Singular. 

" "" *"• Imperfect ' " ^ """'■ 

Tense, 



If you or ye he, 
If they be. 



If thou wej'f, 
If he were. 



shall or will 
have moved. 

shall or wilt 
have moved. 

Plural. 
If we vjej-e, 
If you or ye ivere, 
If they ivere. 



Rule 8. A noun or pronoun denoting possession, is governed 
by the following noun,* and should have the possessive form. 
(See under figures 1, 2, 3, on 15th page, in last part of this 
work.) 1,2,3,4,5,6. 

Rule 10. Verbs connected by conjunctions should generally 
be expressed in the same mood and tense. 
* The following noun is often understood. 



EuLE 9. The object of a preposition, transitive verb, or tran- 
sitive participle, must be of the objective case; (i. e; of the 
objective form). 1, 2. 

Rule 11. Nouns and pronouns connected by one or more con- 
junctions, must be of the same case^ because they are either the 
subject of the same verb, or are the object of the same prepo- 
sition, transitive verb, or participle. 



8 



COMPREHENSIVE GRAMMAR. 



p V p ii a 

Parsing Lesson 8. We can make our friends happy. The 
a V n c n a 

physician may administer the medicine; but Providence alone can 

V p p V ad c p V p V 

tless it. We can write better if we try. We should resist the 

n pr n p ad v n pr n 

allurements of vice. We could not accomplish the work in time. 

n vacpv p vp 

Amanda was ill, but I thought she might live. I may have mis- 

V p n n V n 
understood him. The scholar's diligence must secure the tutor's 

n c p V n pr p p 

approbation. If he had foreseen the consequences of it, he would 

ad V npvpan 

Undoubtedly have avoided the crime. I gave him good advice, 

c p ad V pr p n v 

but he would not hearken to it. The man might have finished the 
n ad c p ad v p ad n v ad 

work sooner, but he could not have done it better. Charles is not 

a cadp vpcpv n 

insincere, and therefore we may trust him. If we had the power 

c n p vanaprpv 

and disposition, we should make all men happy around us. Were 

ad a n ad van p vn 

there no difference there would foe no choice. I would make no 

an a n pr n p 

one dictionary an invariable standard of pronunciation. They 

V c p V ad p 

would have been honored, if they had conducted uprightly. It 

V ad n p V ad a n n 

must be so, Plato, thou reasonest well. That author's sentiments 

V pr p n pe P pr a 

must be mistaken by his critic. Having exposed himself in differ- 

n p V p n p V 

ent climes, he may have lost has health. I would have prevented 
p p v pe c pr a n pr n p 

it. We may rest assured that by the steady pursuit of virtue, we 

V c V p n p ad v pr 
shall obtain and enjoy it. The man who is faithfully attached to 

n V pr a n n 

religion may be relied on with humble confidence. The Romans 

p V n ad V n n 

who conquered the world, could not conquer themselves. Thous- 

p n V pr a n 

ands whom indolence has sunk into contemptible obscurity, might 

V ad pr n c u c n ad 
have come forward to usefulness and honor if idleness had not 

V nprapncn v 
frustrated the effects of all their powers. If Columbus had been 

ad a an ad ad 

less persevering, the Western Continent might not yet have been 

V pvpnp van 

discovered. It was my direction he should submit. AU men 

vpn pvn a n 

have their frailties. Hast thou read Cowper's beautiful poems ? 

p ad ad V pr n a n vpn 

We cannot always rely on promises. True politeness has its seat 

pr n an vpn 

in the heart. That man has missed his way. 



Parsing Lesson 6. She is my sister. It is his book. 
James shall be librarian. We were class-mates in college. 
An idle person is a monster in the creation. Art thou a 
son or a daughter ? Obey thy parents. Virtue's precepts 
are our best inheritance. John's brother is my real friend. 
Jane is to be mistress of the school. Music and drawing 
are sister arts. W^ars are regulated robberies and piracies. 
Prophecies and miracles proclaimed Jesus Christ to be the 
Saviour of the world. The Roman pontiff claims to be 
the supreme head of the church on earth. Sir, this gen- 
tleman being a fellow boarder, felt free to accompany me 
in a walk to your office. Lyon being chosen governor, could 
not sit as judge. Webster being appointed secretary, re- 
signed his seat in the Senate. And there sat in the window 
a young man named Eutycus. Alexander, the conqueror 
of the world, was, in fact, a robber and a murderer. The 
Thracian was called a robber, because he had only one 
small vessel ; but Alexander was styled a conqueror, be- 
cause he commanded great fleets and armies. Harry, the 
peddler, sells pins and needles. The emperor Antonius 
wrote an excellent history. Vice, the bane of happiness, 
destroys our health. Newton, the philosopher, was a great 
astronomer. My neighbor has two sons, James and John. 
My friends, I am glad to see you. Guard, drag here the 
Spanish prisoner Alonzo ! quick ! bring the traitor here. 
Gentlemen, you are w^rong ; I am not the person to whom 
you allude. The general being slain, the army was routed. 
She being absent, the business was attended to by others. 
They being willing to improve, the study was rendered 
agreeable. He having ended his discourse, the assembly 
dispersed. 

2. It is the watch which he sold. They are the goods 
which I bought. I sincerely love him whom you saw. She 
is the lady whom he adores. He is a man whom nothing 
will satisfy. Lafayette is the general whom we greatly 
respect. And he inquired of him, whom seeJcest thou? The 
ladies, whom we saw at court, were genteelly dressed. 
The friend whom thou hast lost, thou wilt long remember. 
Thousands whom indolence has sunk into contemptible 
obscurity, might have com.e forward to usefulness and 
honor, if idleness had not frustrated the effects of all their 
powers. 

3. That man has missed his way. This statement is to 
all persons whom it may concern. One person cannot know 
every thing. Either road will carry you to the city. Any 
person knows fire from water. Neither boy caught any 
fish. All men pursue happiness. Some people talk of sub- 
jects which they do not understand. I lent both books to 
Nathan. That boy must be punished for such mischief. 
Other soils may require different treatment. 



COMPREHENSIVE GRAMMAR. 



The Potential Mood declares the power, liberty, possibility, or necessity of an action or a state of being. It has 
four tenses, as here exhibited in 

The verb Move. 
Present Tense. 

is plural and 



May, 
can or 
must , 
Mayest^ 
canst or 
must 

Might, 
could, would 
or should 
Mightest* 
coiddst, would st 
or shouldst 

May, can 

or 
must have 
Mayest, canst 

or 
must have 



move 



move 



< first and third 
( person singular, 

f is second person 



Thus, 



Present Tense. 
We, ye or may 
you, they, 
I or he 



singular, 



Thou 



can or 
must 
mayest, 
canst or 
must 



move, 



move. 



Imperfect Tense. 

( is plural and 
first and third 
person singular, 

is second persoa 
singular. 



move 



move 



Thus, 



Perfect Tense. 



3I0VED 



MOVED 



is plural and 
first and third 
person singular, 

is second person 
singular. 



Imperfect Tense, 
We, ye or might, 
you, they, could, would 
I or he or should 
mightest. 
Thou couldst, wouldst 

or shouldst 
Perfect Tense. 
We, ye or may, can 



Thus, 



you, they, 
I or he 

Thou 



or 
must have 
mayest, canst 

or 
must have 



Might, 
could, would 
or shoidd 
Mightest, 
couldst, wouldst 
or shoiddst 



Pluperfect Tense. 



have 

MOVED 

have 

MOVED 



is plural and 
<J first and third 
( person singular, 

r is second person 
( singular, 



Pluperfect Tense. 
We, ye or might, 



Thus, 



you, they, 
I or he 

Thou 



could, would - 
or should 
mightest, 
couldst, wouldst 
or shouldst 



move, 
move. 

moved, 
moved. 



have 
moved. 

have 
moved. 



Rule 12. Any verb or participle requires the same 
case after as before it, when both words mean the same 
person or thing ; as. She walks a queen. 1, 2, 3. 

Rule 14. When a person or thing is addressed, the 
name of it is in the nominative case independent. 1. 



Rule 13. A noun or personal pronoun used to further 
explain, or to emphasise on a preceding noun, must agree 
with it in case ; as. Are you acquainted with Noleini, him 
who plays the organ ? 

Rule 15. A noun or pronoun placed before a partici- 
ple and disconnected with the rest of the sentence, is in 
the nominative case independent, — and should have the 
nominative form. 



Comparison of Adjectives. 
wiser; Superlative, wisest. 
Superlative, most religious. 
least able. 



Adjectives of one syllabi© are generally compared thus: Positive, wise; Comparative, 
Of more than one syllable, thus: Positive, religious; Comparative, more religious; 
Or by diminution of the quality: Positive, able; Comparative, less able; Superlative, 



* See figure 3i in 30th page of Supplemental Grammar. 



io 



COMPREHENSIVE GRAMMAR. 



Parsing Lesson i. 
p 



p V van pr 

He studied io avoid all intercourse ynih. 
a n V T pr p la p 

tliem. An industrious man loves io labor -^vitli his hands. We 

V V n p V V n 
should endeavor io please persons. He labored io still the tumult. 

p V a V n p V 

They were desirous io hear the news. He was known io have 

V p P V ad V p n pr n p 
loved her. We dare not leave our studies without permission. It 
V a V n pv n n 

is delightful io contemplate the goodness of Providence. Henry, 
V p V p V a Q V a v n pr 

let me hear you read. A good man is unwilling io give pain to 

n c n V V p ad n 

man or beast. To have been admired availed him little. Com- 

V p V n n p 

passion prompted us io relieve Norman's wants. We should 

V V ad pr a n v a v n 
strive io live peaceably with all men. Be ready to meet adversity. 

pvadv n vnpv vp p 

We need not urge Charles to do good, he loves to do it. They 

pe a V n v a 

being willing to improve, the study was rendered agreeable. 

c n can vpv 

Neither threatenings nor any promises could make him violate the 

n pv npv n pe cp 

truth. I am the person who owns a fault committed, and who 

V v p pr p a n van 
disdains to conceal it. In your youthful amusements let no unfair- 

V c a n V V n i)r 
ness be found. Though bad men attempt to turn virtue into 

n p V p pr n pr p n v 

ridicule they honor it at the bottom of their hearts. To confess 

n p V pr n v a n pr a 

the truth I was in fault. Let no compliance with the immoderate 

n pr n ad v p pr a u v 

mirth of others ever betray you into profane sallies. To recom- 

n pr n p n v a p v a 

mend virtue to others our lights mnsi shine bright.* He had no 

a n V p n p ad v p 

colorable excuse to palliate his conduct. We cojtld not make them 

v V n v n n 

understand. To abandon friends icill sink a man's character, 
n V y n pr n v pr ad 

Jane is to be mistress of the school. To have been censured by so 

an ad V p p 

judicious a friend nould have greatly- discouraged me. He being 

pe pr n V v n p 

loved by the duke expected io be pardoned. Sir Charles, are you 

V V pr an an ad 
prepared to answer to these accusations ? xV young man so 

a c a V V ad a n pr 

Isaiiied t^ and virtuous, promises to be a very useful member of 

npn V cvpn a 

society. Ills vices have weakened and impaired his health. True 

n y n c V n 

valor protects the feeble, and hiimbles the oppressor. 

* See .figure 6 onthe Adverb,"in Supplemental Grammar. 

t Learned, wliea an adjective, should be pronounced in t^o syllables. 



Pi^TJSTNG LEsso2>r 7- He is the same man whom I saw at 
the Whig caucus. Another opportunity will occur. The 
former noun is in the nominative ; the latter noun is in the 
objective case. 

2. TJmt is John's hat. General, this is the svrord 
which you gave me. This is the schohir wliom I taught. 
This is Peter's book, and that is Eliza's. 'That is the cane 
Avhich he lost. Neither of the boys was at school. Each 
of the apples is tart. I saw both of the girls at meeting. 
Not one of them whom thou hast clothed in purple is 
happy. lie dined on beef steak, and I will dine on the 
same. You must not take, without permission, that which 
belongs to another. Some took a part in the meeting ; 
others kept silence. None can escape punishment for their 
crimes. 

3. That pencil belongs to Mary. That boy will be lato 
at school. That is the same little girl that sold us the line 
strawberries. This is the soldier that slept at his post. 
The bird th.at sang so sweetly has flown. I read a story of 
a boy that stole apples. Mary, see that the biscuit are 
well baked. T hear that peace is restored. A child that 
can learn and will not learn, must be made to learn. My 
friend, I am glad that you are v/ell. He that trusts in the 
Lord wiil never be without a friend. AVe may rest assured 
that by the steady pursuit of virtue, w^e shall obtain and 
enjoy it.^ 

4. We heard them reviling our sincere friend. A\ c sav/ 
them approaching us at a distance. lie passed through 
life adored by his friends. Raised to greatness, he em- 
ployed his power. Having resigned his office, he retired to 
private life. Money taken by fraud betrays its possessor. 
Having rested, we ascended the hiil. Jesus knowing their 
thoughts, rebuked them. His father Itaving received the 
intelligence, departed. When you behold wicked men mul- 
tiplying in number and increasing in power, imagine nut 
that Providence favors them. We find man placed in a 
world wdiere he has by no means the disposal of the events 
that happen. A manifesto Avas then read, exhibiting, in 
glowdng colors, the tyrannical conduct of the king. 

5. Jane and Eliza have recited their lessons. Patience 
and diligence remove mountains. Charles and John study 
history. Diligence and economy have made him rich. We 
favored you and them. He deceived me and thee. They love 
and obey him. We fear and reverence God. Love and 
practice virtue. I had v^ritten and sealed the letter. I 
will perform the operation, if he desire it. We mu,st be 
virtuous, if we desire to be trusted. Self conceit, presump- 
tion, and obstinacy, blast the prospect of many a youth. 
Health, life, connections, and pleasures, Avill imperceptibly 
pass away, She moves gracefully and sings admirably, 



COMPREHENSIVE G R A M M A R . 



11 



The Infinitive Mood expref^ses an action or a state of being, in a general and unlimited manner ; having no 
nominative, consec|tient]y neither number nor person. It has two tenses, as exhibited below in the verbs. 



Present Tense, 
To move, 

Pcrfccl Tense, 
To have moved. 

Participles. 

Present Moving, 
Perfect Having moved. 



Move — Have — and Be. 

Present Tense, 
To have, 

Perfect Tense ^ 
To have had. 

Participles. 
Present Baving, 
Perfect Havin(y had. 



Present Tense, 
To he. 

Perfect Tense, 
To have been. 

Participles^ 
Present Being, 
Perfect Having been. 



EuLE 16. The .verbs which fol- 
low bid, dare, feel, hear, let, male, 
need, see, &c., are generally used 
without the prefix to in the infinitive 
mood. 



Rule 17. A verb in the infini- 
tive mood may be governed by a 
verb, noun, adjective or nariiciple. 
1. 2, 3. 



lluLE 18. A verb in the infini- 
tive absolute, stands independent of 
the rest of the sentence; as. To 
speak plainly, I think you are 
wrong. 



Of 

to 

for 

by 

with 
in 



into 
within 
without 
over 
der 



A list of t]i3 principal Prei303itions. 

above at 

below up 

between down 

beneath before 



un 
through 



from 
beyond 



behind 



on or upon 

among 

after 

about 

against. 



List of tile principal Conjunctions. 

And, if, that, both, then, since, for, | Pisjunctive. But, or, nor, as, than, lest, yet, though. 



Copulative 
because, therefore, wherefore. 



Positive. 
Good, 

Bad, ill, or evil, 
Far, 
Little, 

Much or many, 
Old, 



unless, either, neither, notwithstanding. 



Irregular Adjectives compared. 



Comparatiye. 


Superlative. 


Positive. 


Comparative. 


better, 


best. 


Fore, 


former. 


worse. 


worst. 






further or farther, 


furthest or farthest. 


Late, 


later, 


less or lesser. 


least. 






more, 


most. 


Near, 


nearer, 


older or elder, 


oldest or eldest. 







Superlative; 
( foremost {in place.) 
\ first (in time or order.) 
j latest (referring to time.) 
\ last [in order.) 

nearest (referring to place.) 

next {in order.) 



12 



COMPREHENSIVE GRAMMAn* 



Parsing Lesson 8. It was happy for the state, that 
Fabius continued in the command with Minucius ; the for- 
mer's phlegm was a check upon the latter's vivacity. He, 
who preserves me, to whom I owe my being, whose I am, 
and whom I serve, is eternal. Caesar crossed the Rubicon, 
overran Italy, entered Rome, and seized upon the public 
treasury. 

2. I can write better than you. The sun shines by day, 
and the moon by night. They loved him more than me. 
The peasant's cabin contains as much content as the sover- 
eign's palace. Paris is not so large as London. Meekness 
controls our angry passions ; candor, our severe judge- 
ments. He is not only a descendant from pious ancestors, 
but an inheritor too of their virtues. The boy despises 
the infant ; the man the boy, the philosopher the man, and 
the christian all. The earth is the Lord's, and the fullness 
thereof. There are more cultivators of the earth than of 
their own hearts. Strength departed from his hands, and 
agility from his feet. 

3. They remained in town ten days. He was in college 
three years. Congress continued in session six months. 
They were imprisoned nine months. I saw him last week. 
Next week he will return. Last winter I visited Philadel- 
phia. Which way shall I go to reach Plainfield Mills? 
The stage passes every day at two o'clock. The next new 
year's day, I shall have been at school three years. 

He bought her a harpsichord, James sold John a book. 
She is somewhat like her sister. It is worth a voyage 
across the Atlantic. The smith made the second medal 
exactly like the first. Washington like Cincinnatus retired 
from the cabinet to the plough. When Strabo speaks in 
anger, his word is not worth a dime. An idle person eats 
the fruits of the earth like a vermin or a wolf. 

4. The preceptor taught us grammar and history. 

With pleasure let us own our errors past. 
And make each day a critic on the last. 

Thomas told John a story. He asked the stranger many 

questions. 

5. To walk in the morning is healthful. To write a 
neat hand requires practice. To desire to excel is praise- 
worthy. To practice virtue is the sure way to love it. To 
live long and well is desirable. To have been admired 
availed him little. To abandon friends will sink a man's 
character. To be faithful among the faithless, argues great 
strength of principle. To excel in knowledge is honorable, 
but to be ignorant is base. 

6. The city was destroyed by Titus. The children are 
taught by the preceptor. The girls were encouraged by us 
to learn their lessons. Virtue must be formed and sup- 
ported by constant exertions. Much mischief has often 



been prevented by timely consideration. The mind should 
be stored with useful knowledge and cultivated with care. 
A desire to be thought learned often prevents our improve- 
ment. The ladies whom we saw at court were genteelly 
dressed. To have been censured by so judicious a friend 
would have greatly discouraged me. 

7. Ezra is studying Greek. He was writing a letter 
when I saw him. The brightness of the flame is wasting 
its fuel. As Ortogral of Bazra, was one day wandering 
along the streets of Bagdat, musing on the variety of mer- 
chandise which the shops opened to his view; and observing 
the different occupations which busied the multitude on 
every side, he was awakened from the tranquility of medi- 
tation by a crowd that obstructed his passage. 

8. It was such a sight as terrified us. He has as many 
men as can be employed. They have raised as much money 
as will be needed. The arguments were such as follow. 
Fishes increase more than beasts or birds, as appears from 
their numerous spawn. 

9. Whoever seeketh findeth. Whoever sins will repent 
of it. Whoever does well, will receive favor. Whoever 
seeks fame shall receive a reward of fame. Whoever be- 
lieveth on me shall not be ashamed. 

10. Do not hurt yourselves or others by the pursuit of 
pleasure. Consult your whole nature. Consider your- 
selves not only as sensitive, but as rational beings ; not 
only as rational, but social; not only as social, but immor- 
tal.* Time we should consider as a sacred trust committed 
to us by God ; of which we are now the depositories, and 
are to render an account at the last. We quickly per- 
ceived, that what the ignorant natives had been terrified at 

as a giant, was nothing more than a sparry concretion, ^ 
formed by the water dropping from the roof of the cave, 
and by degrees hardening into a figure, which their fears 
had formed into a monster. 

11. The manner of a young lady's employing herself 
usefully in reading, will be the subject of another paper. 
He reminded Dr. Johnson of Mr. Murphy's having paid 
him the highest compliment that was ever paid to a lay- 
man. I gave him an account of my having examined the 
chest of books which he had sent to me. 

12. He would have his children taught f well in read- 
ing, grammar, and history. Knowledge softened by com- 
placency and good breeding, makes a man beloved and 
admired. f What you would not have donef to you, do 
not to others. 

* The last sentence is very elliptical; and as in this sentence and the two 
following, connects words in apposition. 

t See under figure 2, on classing the Participle, in 26th page of last part 
of the work. 



COMPREHENSIVE GRAMMAR. 



13 



Parsing Lesson 9. 1.* What pleases my parents pleases 
me. I have found what you lost. Remember what you 
learn. He related what he heard distinctly. What bene- 
fits every one is useful. What we contend for is removed, i 
What cannot be prevented must be endured. Choose what | 
is most fit ; custom will render it most agreeable. Foolish ; 
men are more apt to consider what they have lost, than | 
what they possess. What sculpture is to a block of mar- j 
ble, education is to a human soul. Whatever purities I 
fortifies also the heart, AVhatever 3^ou find take care of. I 
Whatsoever promotes the interest of the soul, is also con- ' 
ducive to our present felicity. Whatsoever a man sows he i 
shall reap. 

2. In what town does Captain Ladd live'? What lady 
sat in your pew last Sabbath? What new books did you 
see in Mr. Payne's library 1 What will be the lesson for 
next time? What avail the best sentiments if people do 
not live suitably to them ? 

3. Uncorrupted as yet by ?anbition or greatness, his 
indignation rose at being tliought capable of the savage 
actions which the prophet had mentioned ; and, with much 
warmth, he replies : But what! is thy servant a dog, that 
he should do this great thing? What, said I, does virtue 
then reside in the vale? I am found, said she, in the valley 
and in the mountain. 

4. And what is more remarkable still, he succeeded 
amongst a thousand enemies. The unusual length of her 
administration, and the strong features of her character, 
were able to overcome all prejudices ; and obliging her de- 
tracters to abate much of their invectives, and her admirers 
somewhat of their panegyrics, have, at last, in spite of 
political factions, and what is more, of religious animosi- 
ties, produced a uniform judgement with regard to her 
conduct. 

5. "What though in solemn silence all 

Move round this dark terrestrial ball, 

lu reason's ear they all rejoice. 

And utter forth a glorious voice. 

What though the glittering robe. 

Of every hue reflected light can give, 

Or floated loose, or stiff with mazy gold, 

The pride and gaze of fools, oppress him not. 

6. Virtue's precepts are our best inheritance. Charles's 
resignation filled all Europe with astonishment. Our good 
or bad fortune depends on the choice we make of our 
friends. If we look around us, we shall perceive that the 
whole universe is full of active powers. She moves grace- 

* The five uses of the word what are illustrated in the following five pai-a- 
graphs, commencing under the figure 1, referred to in the la&t part of the 
article under the ?iead Pronoun. 
9. 



fully, and sings admirably. How soon man's earthly en- 
joyments pass away. Friendship can scarcely exist where 
virtue is not the foundation. A young man so learned and 
virtuous, promises to be a very useful member of society. 
Some talk of subjects they do not understand ; others 
praise virtue, who do not practice it. A letter which we 
have just received, gives us an answer. General, this is 
the sword which 3'ou gave mo. Human affairs are in con- 
tinual motion and fluctuation, altering their appearance 
every moment, and passing into some new forms. If the 
mind be well cultivated it produces a store of fruit ; if 
not, it is overrun Avith weeds. They being willing to im- 
prove, the study was rendered agreeable. To have been 
admired availed him little. If from any internal cause a 
man's peace of mind be disturbed, in vain we load him with 
riches and honors. No more ! Unbind that trembling 
wretch ; let him depart ; it is well he should report the 
mercies which we show to insolent defiance. Hark ! our 
troops are moving ; follow me, friends. If our friend be 
in trouble, we whom he knows and loves, will console him. 
Be not afraid of the wicked ; they are under the control of 
Providence. If we do not study the scriptures, they will 
never make us wise. The butler did not remember Joseph. 
Earthly happiness does not flow from riches. The glazier's 
business was unknown to the ancients. The antecedent in 
grammar is the noun to v;hich the relative refers. Calico 
is an Indian stuflp made of cotton, sometimes stained with 
lively colors. 

7. The roughness found on our entrance into the paths 
of virtue and learning, grows smoother as we advance. 
Then were they in great fear. He had no colorable excuse 
to palliate his conduct. Reveal none of the secrets of thy 
i friend. A certain house-holder planted a vineyard, but the 
j men employed in it made ungrateful returns. We find 
man placed in a world where he has by no means the dis- 
posal of the events that happen. Blind must that man be 
who discerns not the most striking marks of a divine gov- 
ernment exercised over the world. Complaisance produces 
good nature and mutual benevolence ; it encourages the 
timorous, and soothes the turbulent. He who is a stran- 
ger to industry may possess, but he cannot enjoy. Integrity 
leads us straight forward, disdaining all doublings and 
crooked paths. Incense signifies perfumes exhaled by fire, 
and made use of in religious ceremonies. He who has not 
virtue is not truly wise. An enemy that disguises himself 
under the veil of friendship is worse than he that declares 
open hostility. Convey no intelligence to others which you 
would be ashamed to avow. Expect the same filial duty 
from your children which you pay to your parents. Thou 
who hast been a witness of the fact, canst describe it. 



14 COMPREHENSIVE GRAMMAR. 



GRAMMAE. 

Grahimar Is divided into four parts : Orthography, Etymology, Syntax, and Prosody. 
Orthography teaches the nature and powers of letters, and the just method of spelling words.* 
Etymology treats of the diiferent sorts of words, their various modifications and their derivation. 
Syntax treats of the agreement, government, and proper arrangement, of words and sentences. 
Prosody treats of the just pronunciation of words, and the laws of versification.* 

ETYMOLOGY AHD SYNTAX. 

In the beginning of this work words are considered in ten classes, which have been commonly called parts of speech ; 
their names and definitions given, and the attributes of most of them briefly noticed. Things will now be taken up, 
relating to each class of words, which were before omitted. And first, under the 

AE.TICLE. 

An Article is a word placed before a noun to limit its signification. There are two articles, a or an, and the. 

1. A should be used before a consonant, and before all words beginning with a vowel or diphthong, taking the sound 
as if preceded by w or long u ; as, A book; many a one ; a unicorn. ».- 

2. Where is an to be used? An is to be used before a vowel or a silent h; it is also to be used before an h that is 
not silent, if the accent is on the second syllable of the word ; as, An index, an hour, an historical oration. Why is an 
to be used before some words and not before others? Answer: To render the expression more easy for the organs of 
speech, and more agreeable to the ear. 

3. The definite article is sometimes used before adverbs of the comparative or superlative degree, in order, to mark 
the degree more strongly, or to define it more precisely ; as, The more I read the book the better I like it. 

4. The nice distinctions to be observed in the application of the articles, are of great importance. Their force con- 
sists in singling out from the common mass, the individual, or individuals, meant. 

5-. A or an is more general and unlimited, and, for the most part, is nearly synonymous with one, and never means 
but one ; thus, ' Give me aw apple,' includes the same meaning, as ' Give me o^e apple.' The only difference in the 
expression is, that o?2e emphasises more on the number, than we intend by the article. The following are still more 
exact examples of the meaning of one included in the article a or an: I took a share, and my friend took a shar^ But 
in the following examples, one substituted for a, would be repugnant to the sense : George has become almost a man ; 
Its noise resembled the cry of a child. In this sense, number is not presented to the mind, but quality or kind. In 
the following sentence a would fail quite as much of giving the sense : The whole society were in action like one man. 

6. The is the more definite and special, and is nearly synonymous with this, that, these, those. Still one can never 
be changed for the other, with effo'ct exactly similar. The definite article is of far more extensive and various use, than 
those definitives, which it somewhat resembles. One difference between these words and the definite article is, they 
give a more special, or a heavier emphasis ; thus. If a man profess a regard for the duties of religion and neglect those 
of morality, that man's religion is vain. The meaning here demands the more weighty definitive. 

(For a practical use of the article see full details in Supplemental Grammar.) 

Comsnon aiad Proper Nomms reviewed. 

1. A Common noun is a name common to all of the same kind, class, sect, or family ; as, Man, boy, horse, river, 
city, Baptist, Franklin. 

2. A Proper noun is the negative of a Common noun; as, Charles, Ranger, Thames, Boston, Sarah, Benjamin. 
Thus, Charles is a boy, but Charles is not the name of every boy; Boston is a city, but Boston is not the name of, 

* As these two parts are taught almost entii-ely on other occasion?, and from other books, a place is not given them in this work.. 



COMPREHENSIVE GRAMMAR 



every city. Franklin* considered as the name of a family is a common noun, because it is a name common to all of 
that fiimily. But Benjamin not being a name common to all the members of that fjimily, is a proper noun. Sarah is 
a Baptist, but every Baptist is not named Sarah ; but every one of that sect has the name"^ Baptist. Horse is a common 
noun, because every individual in this class of animals is a horse ; but Ranger in this sense is a proper noun, because 
it is not the name of every horse. The same remarks will apply in every instance of a common, or a proper noun. 

3. Besides common and proper, nouns are divided by grammarians into Collective, Abstract, and Participial nouns. 
A Collective noun is that, which Avith the singular form, expresses more persons or things than one ; thus, Family, 

jioch, people, congres!?, are collective nouns, because with the singular form they express a plurality of persons or animals. 
All these are singular nouns, that is, they have the singular form ; as families, flocks, congresses, arc their plurals. 
People has no plural. 

4. Abstract nouns are the names, of qualities or attributes — things that are not substance ; as, Knowledge, goodness, 
virtue. 

5. Prtr^ic/piaZ nouns are derived from participles ; as, Beginning, reading, ivriting. 

6. Nominative case. This case is so called from nomen a name, the Latin word from which noun is also derived. It 
means the naming case. The nominative case is tliC primary, original form of names, or the state in which a name is 
always found, unless when its proper form is varied to denote its subordination to some other word with which it is 
connected in composition. 

Therefore there seems no need of a fourth case called independent case. We may call a noun or pronoun the nomina- 
tive case independent — meaning the naming case standing independent. Hence we may define the nominative case thus : 
The Nominative case simply denotes the name of a thing ; or it is the subject of a verb. 

The word Pronoun (from the Latin pro, meaning for or instead of, and nomen a name,) signifies instead of a name or 
noun ; hence, 

A Pronoun is a word used instead of a noun to avoid a too frequent use of the same word. 

Pronouns are divided into two classes, called personal and relative. 

Personal pronouns stand directly for the name of some person or thing. 

Relative Pronouns relate, in general, to some preceding noun or personal pronoun, which is therefore called the 
antecedent. 

The personal pronouns are /, thou or you,^ he, she, and it, singular ; we, you or ye, they, plural. 

2. The inquisitive pupil may ask, and the query may occur to the mind of the closest student, why there are two classes 
made of pronouns. He has been told that every pronoun is used instead of a noun or some other word, and that each 
class of pronouns may refer to persons and things. And although there is a little difference in the wording of the 
definitions, he does not see wherein one really affirms any difference from the other. 

Now what is the marked difference between the two classes of pronouns ? Answer : 

First; a relative pronoun nearly always, except when a question is asked, relates, as its definition says, to some antecedent word — 
to some noun or personal pronoun which goes first. Of personal pronouns, only the third person does this; and that does not refer to 

* In case of a family, the individual or first name with the family or surname, would rightly be considered a proper noun; thus, 
Benjamin Franklin is a proper noun, the same as Benjamin alone. The custom of parsing connections like the following has been 
various : James Pike, Deacon Ames, Miss Goodwin, sister Susan, king James, lake Huron, Niagara river, &c. But we object to 
this last, although similar expi'essions are often made by careless writers, or by those who do not know or consider analogy of the 
language. River Niagara would be better. In connections similar to these examples, some have parsed the first word an adjective 
belonging to the next; others have parsed the first a noun and the other in apposition with it; whilst some parse the two together as a 
noun. As the given and surname together, like James Pike, are the name only of a particular individual, they are most properly 
parsed together, as a proper noun. We may add complex to such to distinguish them from proper nouns generally. The rest of these 
examples may be well parsed, the words together, as a complex noun; some of them common, and some proper; or a preference would 
be given to parse some of these examples, the first a noun and the other in apposition. If an article or adjective precedes, the latter 
way is decidedly preferable; as, My sister Susan is with me; We sailed across the lake Huron. 

t Tlie author prefers callinor you here a plural pronoun, used for the second person singular. This reconciles you with a plural verb, which it alwaj's 
must have, wiierever used. But to call you second person singular with a plural verb, makes an anomaly in applying a grammar rule. 



16 COMPREHENSIVE GRAMMAR 



nil antecedent ntfunor subject hi near all of its use. John bouglit a knife, but he soon lost it. Here tlie pi*onotins'^l;kitH for ante- 
■cedent words, Jc)/i?i and knife. But the third pei'son, as well as the first and second, often refers to persons or things which have not 
ifc)een previously xiaraed, as will be further shown in its order. 

^^^. Secondly; a relative pronoun differs from a personal in connecting sentences, which a personal pronoun cannot do. 
/; Thirdly ; personal pronouns show by their form which person they are of or represent, and this is probably the reason that they are 
^us called. Their form also marks which number they represent. Relative pronouns do not vary their form for number or person. 
' .Fourthly. Personal pronouns can introduce a subject, — the first and second person always do: examples, 7 am silent, /Aoii art 
^speaking; we remain, you return; he that is wise improves time; they that soav in tears shall reap in joy. All of them can properly 
be used without referring to a subject by a preceding word. Relative pronouns are not so used, (or do not admit of this,) unless it be 
said that who does, when it asks a question. 

3. The pronoun it, sometimes stands for a sentence or part of a sentence ; as, The Je^^s, it is well known, were at 
this time under the dominion of the Romans. To make this plain, transpose the whole sentence : The Jews were at 
this time under the dominion of the Romans, {it or all that) is well known. As for the pulli?ig of them down, if the 
affairs require it. Require Avhat? The pulling of them down, — for Avhich part of the sentence it is a substitute. 

• 4. It is a term of the greatest universality, and may be applied to any being or thing in the universe. Of the Divine 
Being we say, it is the Lord who has done this. Of an infant we say, it cries. We also say, it Avas you ; Who is it? 
Was it they 1 It was the Heretics that first began to rail. Thus we see that it is not only often substituted for persons, 
but sometimes for a plurality of them. // often represents the condition or state of persons and things ; as. Mow is it 
with youl It is unhealthful ; i. e., the climate, or state of the air, is unhealthful. It will be seen from examples which 
follow, as well as from most of the preceding, that it oftener than any other of the pronouns, third person, stands for 
the name of something not previously introduced : It is cold this morning ; It is I. In the former sentence iveather is 
'-fehe exact substitute fdv it ; in the latter, the person — or a more definite word, as, the boy, the girl, according to the 
s;ense. The person is I; the boy is /. We cannot substitute /here for it. 

^^ 5. It is an error common in parsing sentences introduced by it, to mistake the antecedent of a relative pronoun ; as, 
Ui 5'pjg Providence alone that secures, In every change, both mine and yours ; 'Tis education which forms the common 
■inind." In these sentences that and which refer to the pronouns it, partly understood, and not to providence and ediica- 
Hion, as would seem from their collocation. Supply what it stands for, and transpose the sentence, and this truth will 
appear plain : thus. That (or the) being, that secures in every change both mine and ji-ours, is Providence. That thing, 
which forms the common mind, is education. Something is afiirmed in the last sentence to be education ; and what is 
it? Why, that which forms the common mind, is education. So in the other sentence, Providence is not explained, but 
it tells who that being (for which it is a substitute) that protects us, is. In the sentence, " They Avho roam are fools," 
a glance into the meaning shows that/00/5 are not explained, but they ; as the question comes up — what they J Why, 
they who roam (namely, "roaming persons) are fools. Fools is left with its general meaning. 

6. Without seeing the nature of such paradoxical sentences, the verb might be left of the wrong rftimber, (or, to 
•disagree with its nominative,) thus. It is I who stand before you, your sister Jane. The verb should be stands third 
person singular, to agree with its nominative who, referring to it as its antecedent, which is third person singular. 
This will be made plain by displacing it for the noun for which it stands, the person, and transposing the sentence; 
ttius. The person who stands before you is I, your sister Jane. 

. 7. Without a strict regard to the meaning, we are liable to misrefer the relative in some other constructions of sen- 
'teccas, as in the following : He resembles one of those savage animals that has been exhibited for public curiosity. 
In such constructed sentences we should carefully study which antecedent needs further explanation. We shall per- 
ceive that one in this sentence is definite without further explanation; but that those savage animals, without further 
explanation, is left unintelligible; therefore that refers to, or explains animals, qualified by the adjectives. It then 
fallows that "Ao5 should be Vmye." 

:• 8. Where there are two antecedent nouns, and the latter with the preposition of and without an adjective, is an 
•Sidjunct of the former, the pronoun, whether relative or personal ^ almost invariably refers to the former noun; as, 
^Musing on the twie^f^^ of merchandise lohich the shops opened, &c.; The /liye of a city is in the best condition when 
l-there is the least noise or buzz in it. Which refers to variety qualified by its adjunct of merchandise ; and it refers to 
hive qualified by its adjunct of a city, — namely, in a city hive. 

- -9. . -The antecedent to arelatiye pronoun is -sometimes understood after the superlative degree ; as. This is the mildest 
winter fliat lias been known these many years. That does not refer to winter expressed, but to -winters understood. 



COMPREHENSIVE GRAMMAK. 17 



This is deduced from two considerations- First ; This winter has not been known these many years ; therefore the 
relative cannot represent this winter. Secondly; The superlative degree necessarily implies a comparison of one thing 
with a plurality of things. There is not a plurality of things named in the sentence, therefore it must be supplied in 
the mind ; thus, This is the mildest winter of the winters that have been known, &c. Also after adjectives of order, as 
first, second, &c., the antecedent is sometimes understood ; thus, The wheel killed another man, which is the sixth that 
have lost their lives by these means.* From the two foregoing remarks about elliptical antecedents it will be seen that 
that refers to the plural men understood, and not to man, as it means the sixth man of the men that have lost, &c. ; 
therefore the verb have is right. In course their and lives are right, referring to men. Which is right by paragraph 4 
on the Pronoun, in Supplemental Grammar. 

10. To avoid ambiguity in the meaning the relative should be placed next to its antecedent, unless euphony or some 
other point in the expression requires an exception. 

11. Whatever relative is used in one of a series of clauses, should generally be used in them all, if it refers to the 
same antecedent. In the following sentence, this rule is violated : It is remarkable that Holland, against which the war 
was undertaken, and that in the very beginning, was reduced to the brink of destruction, lost nothing. Which should 
have been used instead of that. 

12. A relative pronoun sometimes refers to a clause or a phrase, and sometimes to an adjective ; as. The houses are 
large and elegant, which is an indication of great wealth ; They supposed him to be innocent, which he certainly was 
not. In the former sentence which relates to the preceding clause ; in the latter, to the adjective irmocent. 

13. Ourselves, yourselves, myself, himself, &c., are called compound personal pronouns, and are used sometimes in 
the nominative, and sometimes in the objective case. 

14. The words ours, yours, theirs, hers, and commonly 7nine and thins, which are given in grammars as one of the 
possessive forms of the personal pronouns, are disposed of by different teachers and authors, two or more ways. In 
this work they are treated of as a class of compound words, blending the ideas given by two words in one; thus. This 
pen is mine, and that is yours. Yours is a compound pronoun, equivalent in meaning to your and pen. Your, the first 
word included in the idea, is a personal pronoun, second person plural, possessive case and governed hy pen — included 
in the meaning of the word yours. Pen, the other word included in yours, is a noun and nominative after is. So mine 
is a compound pronoun, equivalent in meaning to my and pen. My, the first word, is a personal pronoun of the first 
person singular, possessive case and governed by pen, &c. So in all such words, we would parse the first a pronoun, 
&c., and the second a word which suits the sense. 

There seems no good reason that these words should not be called compound personal pronouns, as well as what 
called a compound relativ^e. They are different from the adjective nouns which will be considered under the next part 
of speech. In the word that of the foregoing example, the mind looks forward for a noun — that what is yours? The 
mind looks onward to pan. But yours embraces all which the mind surveys, namely, your pen. At the end of the 
word the mind stops satisfied. If it was written, *' and that is yoi»'," we should feel that the idea was not completed, 
and look beyond the word for something more.f 

15. It is sometimes difficult to decide whether the pronoun they, or the noun adjective those should be used; as. We 
are not unacquainted with the calumny of those (or them) who openly make use of the warm^t professions. Tho^e, 
on familiar occasions, sometimes introduces a subject. 

IG. Whoever, Whosoever; Whatever n.n(\. Whatsoever, are compound pronouns, including an antecedent and a rel- 
ative. Each of the former two is equal in meaning to he ivho ; the latter, to that which. Model of parsing them: 
•'Whoever seeketh wisdom shall find her." Whoever is a compound pronoun, equivalent in meaning to Aeandi^Ao; 
he the antecedent is a personal pronoun and the nominative to shall find ; who the relative is nominative to seeketh. 

* On account of such elliptical antecedents having been almost universally overlooked, several authors have presented this sentence in a false grammar 
lesson, to bs referred for correction to the Piule for the agreement of pronouns with thdr antecedents, and to a Note about the use of who and which. It 
was evidently intended as big with errors — which to be changed into who because it refers to man, have to be changed into has to agree with that refer- 
ring, as was supposed, to ?;?.an, or sixth used a noun, and their and lives into the singular to agree with ynan. Bui from the preceding remarkB on this 
sentence those four words need not be altered. The word these, however, should be put singular, this or that, as means here is singular, evidently refer- 
ring to ivheel, which is but one means. That would be preferable to this, because wheel is referred to here as an absent subject. See figure 6, under the 
Adjective, in Supplemental Grammar. 

t The remarks under figure 14 are not all original; but the substance of the first two thirds of the paragraph is adopted from Kirkham's Gramnaar, t© 
which the author of this Work would not fail to acknowledge bis indebtedness for a method of parsing those words, which appears to him eo appropriate. 



18 COMPREHENSIVE GRAMMAR. 



"Whatever purifies, fortifies also the heart.'' Whatever is a compound rehitive pronoun, including an antecedent and 
a relative, that and which ; That the antecedent, is an adjective noun and the nominative to fortifies ; tvhich the rela- 
tive, is nominative to purifies. 

17. The cormpouudsjivhichever and ichichsoever , are seldom used otherwise than as adjectives. Whatever and ithat- 
soever are also sometimes used as adjectives. The compounds with soever, are seldom used at the present day. 

18. The compounds whichsoever, ivhats&ever, and the like, are elegantly divided by the interposition of the corres- 
ponding nouns ; thus, " On whichsoever side the king cast his eyes," would appear better if written. On which side 
soever, &c. 

19. The word what is sometimes improperly usel for the conjunction thai ; as, I have no doubt but ivh^t he did it 
for the best. What should be that, and but omitted. (See under figure 10 on Conjunction in Supplemental Grammar.) 

20. Uses or the word What. The word ichat has the following various uses : 

1st. It is a compound relative pronoun, having the sense of thai which ; as, I have heard what has been alleged, i. e., that which 
has been. &c. It is sometimes equal to those lohich; as, It is for you to judge, gentlemen, whether what I advance are not truths; 
i. e., those things, sentiments, or doctrines which. The antecedent those is an adjective noun and nominative (or subject) of are^ and 
ichich the relative is object of advance. (See example of parsing whatever^ in a passage on compound words.) What sometimes 
includes the meaning of him (or that person) and who; as, Nor hope to find a friend but what has found a friend in thee; i. e., but in 
/i/?ft (ov that person) ivho, &c. 

2d. TVhat^ as well as ivhich and that, is frequently used as a noun adjective; as, I know not what impressions time may -have made 
upon your person. In this uee it ofcen asks a question; as, What character will you appear in? Sometimes the noun is understood; 
as, What will you do.' i. e., what thing will, &c. ; What have I done? i. e., what deed have I done. Or in cases like the last two 
examples, what may be parsed an interrogati\ e adjective noun. 

3d. It is sometimes used as an interjection; as. What! could ye not watch with me one hour? 

4th. What is sometimes used for emphasis' sake, instead of which, and is equally a relative pronoun. In such a use it stands for 
a part of the sentence, which always follows it; thus. And what is worthy of speuial remark, they were effective just in proportion as 
they contained the salt of the pure religion. What here is a relative pronoun, in nature precisely like which, standing for the last 
two clauses of the sentence. Place and immediately before the first of the last two clauses, and read those first, and the relative will 
appear plain. 

oth. What is sometimes used in connection with though, as a conjunction; as, " What though in solemn silence all move round 
this dark terresti'ial ball." There is no ellipsis here — the sense admits of none. The meaning is different from what if, as in Pope : 
What if the foot, ordained the dust to tread, aspired to be the head. Here is clearly an ellipsis — what would be the conse- 
quence if the foot aspired, &c. But tchat taken with though in a meaning like this, is simply a conjunction, equal in meaning to 
although or notwithstanding, corresponding with yet, implied before the third line of the stanza. 

When what is used very indefinite, some authors treat of it as forming a distinct class of this word; as. He cares not what he says or 
■ does. But what in this and other similar uses can be fiirly parsed as a compound relative pronoun belonging to the first division of it. 

21. The relative who is applied to persons, and ivhich to things or brutes. That is applied to both persons, and 
things or brutes. 

22.^ Besides there being sometimes a nice preference of that to who or ivhich, there are other cases where Us use as a 
relative, appears indispensable: First — after who, used interrogatively; as. Who, that has any sense of religion, 
would have argued thus? Second — when persons make but a part of the antecedent ; as, The woman, and the estate, 
that became his portion, were unmerited rewards. 

23. That is generally preferred to ivho or ivhich after an adjective in the superlative degree, and after the noun 
adjective same ; as, Oataline's followers were the most profligate that could be found in any city ; He is the same man 
that we sav/ before. 

24. The relatives who and which when used in asking questions, lose some of their relative nature, and are therefore 
called intcrrogatives. In this case they do not refer to something going before, but to the word wdiich answers the 
question ; as, Who did this? Ans. James ; i. e., it was James who, &c. But we would not allow this use of these 
words to constitute them a different kind of pronoun. 

ABJECTIVE. 
There is a class of words, called in most of the earlier grammars, adjective pronouns. But in several late works, ir 
which are reckoned but two kinds of pronouns, a part of those words are called pronominal adjectives, and the rest classec 
as personal pronouns. 



COMPREHENSIVE GRAMMAR. 10 



As the division of pronouns into but two classes appears the most simple and distinct, they are so reckoned in this 
work. But here the wurd noun is substituted for pronominal, as being a shorter and fitter word. 

1. Noun Adjectives are a limited class of words, which are sometimes used as adjectives, and sometimes as nouns. 
Such are the following : This, that, these, those, — each, either, neither, — some, any, one, all, such, — much, mamj, 
feic, both, same, several, former, latter, another, other,* none* . When the nouns which these words relate to are 
expressed, they may be called noM?i adjectives, ox simply adjectives ; when their nouns are not expressed, they may be 
called adjective nouns, as a distinction from nouns generally. 

2. But there is quite a w^eighticr reason than shortness of word, for preferring this name and clnssification of those 
words. '■'■Some will gain a prize." If we parse those words as pronouns when used like some in this sentence, we shall 
have a third kind of pronouns, which will contradict our classification. No author has included them either in his list 
of personal, or relative pronouns ; besides this they have not the characteristics of either of those classes of words. 
Therefore if we call those words pronouns sometimes, we must alter our division of them, and say there are occasionally 
three kinds. But they have not the distinguishing character of a pronoun in the general sense of the word, for they 
are not used instead of a noun. Nor are they used to avoid a too frequent use of the same woi-d, so much as for their 
being a contraction of words. What does some stand in place of in that sentence^ Persons will not give the sense. It 
stands in place of no single noun. But in such cases the adjective is used instead of itself and the noun together. 
Substitute some persons, and we have the meaning. We never have to exhibit a pronoun and a noun joined with it for 
its substitute. In the sentence, John bought a knife, but he soon lost it — he stands for John, not he John ; it stands for 
linife, (or at most, the knife,) not it l-nife.j 

3. Adjectives have three degrees of comparison, — a positive, a comparative, and a superlative degree, which are defined 
in the first part of the work. An imperfect degree below the positive is expressed by affixing to it ish ; as, Blue-is/t, 
dark-isA. 

4. Adjectives expressing qualities which do not admit of increase or diminution, are not compared ; as, Round, 
sjuare, right, supreme, chief, exact, perfect. The last two, with one or two others similar, are by good writers sometimes 
allowed to take the forms of comparison. 

5. When one individual person or thing is compared with only one other, the adjective or adverb should be in the 
comparative degree ; but when three or more are compared, the superlative should be used ; as. This is the better apple 
of the two ; that is the best pen of the three. 

G. The comparative is also used when one individual is compared with two or more persons or things, if they are in 
a class, and he is not one of that class ; as, Thomas is wiser than his teachers. His teachers are the class, and he is not 
one of his teachers, therefore the comparative degree is used. It will be seen that when one individual is compared 
with several or many, in a collective body separate from that individual, the comparative degree is used on the same 
principle as when two individuals are compared. 

7. Then, in course, as is embraced in the last paragraph but one, when a person is included in the class of those 
with whom he is compared, the superlative degree should be used ; as, Cicero was the most eloquent of the Romans. 
To say that Cicero was more eloquent than the Romans, would be saying that Cicero was more eloquent than himself, 
as he wa« one of the Romans. 

8. This and that, the only adjectives varied to express number, must agree in number with the nouns to which they 
refer ; as, This city, that church ; these cities, those churches : these being the plural of this, and those of that. 

9. One adjective sometimes qualifies another; as, Pale green silk ; deep blue pitchers ; red hot iron. 

10. Adjectives sometimes express a quality which depends on, or is the result of, the action of the verb, produced 
on its object, or affirmed of its agent ; as, Boil the apples soft ; Hone the razor sharp ; The clay burns white ; The wind 
blows cold-X 

11. The adjective Such. Without nice regard to the meaning intended, this word is liable to be misapplied : When 

* None and the plural of other do not strictly belong to this class of words, as they are never adjectives. They are therefore parsed as nouns; or, to be 
particularly technical in manner of parsing, they may be called compound adjective nouns, as none is equal to no persons or no person, and others to 
other persons. • 

t Various other adjectives are frequently used alone for neatness, force, and bre\ity; and it has been almost a universal custom, to parse them, when 
so used, as nouns, or adjectives used as nouns; as, The wicked in great power; The righteous not forsaken. 

X Adjectives when so used have generally been spokea of as qualifying both the noun and the verb^ but ^they have no reference to the manner of the 
action. 



20 COMPREHENSIVE QRAMMAR. 



we refer to the species or nature of a thing, the word such is properly applied ; as, Such a temper is seldom found ; Ijut 
when degree of the quality of an acijeotive is meant, we should use the word $o ; as. So had a temper ia seldom found. 

?EEB. 

A Ycrh IS a word which expresses action or being. 

A very few transitive verbs govern two objective cases ; as. He taught them philosophy ; They make etymology the rule 
of pronunciation.* 

2. Some intransitive verbs occasionally assume a transitive nature ; as, To live a life of virtue ; To dance the child; 
He ran a race. In these examples, and many others of the like kind, the verbs may not improperly be denominated 
transitive, although the nouns which follow them are not in strictness their object ; but they are either the names of 
the result of the verb's action, or closely connected with it. 

3. Nearly allied to this idiom is that of using after transitive verbs, certain nouns which do not appear to be the 
objects of the verb, nor of the same sense. Examples : The cloth measures ten yards; The gold weighs an ounce. But 
in these and similar examples, the noun may be called in the objective case. 

4. Defective verbs are those which are used only in sotne of the moods and tenses. The verbs which are always 
auxiliaries are defective; as. May, might; can, could; will, would ; shall, should ; and ?nust. Add to these, ought, 
quoth, and beware. Quoth is confined to the imperfect tense. The others sometimes refer to present, and sometimes to 
past time. When ought refers to present time, the infinitive mood should follow it in the present tense ; when it refers 
to past time, the infinitive should follow it in the perfect tense. 

5. A transitive or an intransitive verb may be conjugated differently from the usual manner, by adding its present 
participle to the verb be, through all its moods and tenses ; thus, instead of I teach, thou teachest, he teaches, &c., we 
may say, I am teaching, thou art teaching, he is teaching. This mode of conjugation has, on particular occasions, a 
peculiar propriety ; and contributes to the harmony and precision of language. I am wallcing is more expressive of 
present time, than I walk. He is loriting to his friends, than He writes to his friends. This method in contradistinction 
from the other, may be called the definite conjugation. 

6. In poetry and law style, the verb Ze^ in the imperative mood, is frequently omitted ; as, Perish the lore that 
deadens young desire ; that is, let the lore perish, &c. Be it enacted ; that is, let it be enacted. 

7. We occasionally use a verb in the imperative manner, when no individual or persons in particular, are addressed; 
as, Let not the sternness of virtue aflPright us ; Add 2 to 5 and we have 7 ; Suppose there is a cavity in the centre of 
the earth. The meaning in such cases, will, for the most part, admit of the verb's being rendered either in the poten- 
tial, or subjunctive mood ; thus, We should not let the sternness, &c. ; If we add 2 to 5, &c. 

8. In the Potential and Subjunctive moods a verb is frequently used in the imperfect tense form, when we allude 
only to the present ; as, If I had a book I ivould look over the class. Here in the verbs have and look, we do not allude 
to a shade of past time. 

Verbs are so called from the Latin verhum, which means word ; and this name is given them because they hold so 
important a rank in language. 

PARTICIPLE. 

A Participle is a word derived from a verb, and denotes action or being similar to the verb. 
A participle is often used as a noun in the nominative or objective case. 

1. Sometimes a participial noun retains the participial nature in governing an objective case, whilst it Is itself the 
object of a preposition or transitive verb ; as, I could not think of bestowing time better than in writing an epistle to 
the Spectator ; I cannot forbear troubling you with a letter. 

2. When a participle is used as a noun it should generally have an article precede it and the preposition of follow 
it, or both should be omitted ; as. The converting of the Jews is an enterprise of the 19th century. In familiar senti- 
ment, the easier style of omitting both is preferable ; as. Studying grammar is a laudable pursuit ; Picking berries is 
an employment of children. But in the following, both used would be more dignified; as, The day was ushered in by 

* Some grammariana would, in the former case, parse the word them governed by to understood; and in the latter, rule in apposition with etymology. 
But the shortest way of parsing words is undoubtedly the best, when no good argument can be brought against it. It will appear plain that taught govenis 
each of those words if applied separately; thus, He taught them, is true; He taught philosophy, is also true. And further;— the other method proves the 
first position of this paragraph correct. If we teach philosophy to them, we, in course, teach thsm. 



COMPREHENSIVE GRAMMAR. 21 



the firing of cannon ; The bombarding of the city had ceased. It will be seen that sometimes an article before, and the 
prep, of after a participial noun, must be applied in order to give the sense ; as, The raging of the wind was terrible. 

3. ^lany v.'ords like untouched, unvcxed, &c., have the appearance of being participles, but must be considered as 
adjectives, beo;\us3 there are not verbs of such a prefix from which they can bo derived ; as. Can we untouched by 
gratitude view the profusion of good, &c. But unloded, unbound, &c., are derived from verbs of this prefix, and are 
therefore often participles. They are also, like most participles, sometimes adjectives ; as, lie put a lock on the door, 
bat let it remain unlocked (pronounced anlockt). Unlocked here is an adjective, because it does not express any action 
done. Participles are so called from the Latin participio, Avhich signifies to partake ; and this uame is given thcui 
because they partake of the nature of verbs. 

ADVEEB. 

An Adverb is a word generally used to qualify the sense y)f verbs, participles, adjectives, and adverbs. 

1. Within a few years, since certain writers on language have dwelt more on the philosophy of words, many gram- 
marians vicAV the effect of some adverbs with regard to other parts of speech, to be different from what they formerly 
considered it. Vfe also use an adverb now in some instances, where formerly many would have used an adjective ; as, 
An intransitive verb denotes simply baing, &c. ; The alteration he has made is decidedly an improvement ; not simplcj 
decided. But some literary people of very respectable standing object to this new opinion that adverbs sometimes 
qualify nouns, &g.; they w-ould consider the adverb either as acting on the verb, or if acting on the noun, they would 
maintain that it was an adjective and no adverb. Let us put the word in Italics of the former example, and that of the 
following, to the test: lie is almost a Christian. Does it mean that it simply (or only) denotes being? It simply 
denotes being? If it don't give t!ie sense to emphasise on denotes or shnply, can it be said to qualify denotes? It gives 
the meaning precisely, to emphasise on being or existence, — does it not then qualify the noun? In the other sentence, 
does it mean he almost is ? Is not " he is," completely affirmed? But ^t does not affirm that he is a Christian, — but 
almost a Christian. Supposing it is admitted that almost qualifies Christian, which we think almost all good gram- 
marians would assent to, is it an adveri> or an adjective I It can not be an adjective without affirming all that is in the 
sentence, namely, he is a Christian, fur we have now made almost an adjective showing the kind of Christian. But to 
arrange it properly we must displace a in the word an ; thus. He is an almost Christian. It is true that in the sen- 
tences, " he is an almost Christian," " he is the loould be Christian," almost and ivould be are perfectly adjectives. But 
this is a very different meaning from that of the sentence under our criticism ; there it is not affirmed that he is a 
Christian of any kind. 

2. But our main o))ject under this head is to teach when to use an adjective and when an adverb, — and where to 
place the latter when used. Remarks are given in the last part of this Work relating to the critical distinctions be- 
tween the use of the adjective and adverb — commencing on 31st page ; and a rule for placing the adverbs in a sentence, 
on 43d page. 

3. Tlie adverb there seldom qualifies a word, but is generally used for ornament — to fill up the sentence and render 
the expression smooth; as, There is a difference between cohere and ac?here. But in the following sentence it qualifies : 
There it is. 

4. The adverbs ivhere, here, and thei'e, should not be used for ichereby, herein, and therein ; or where a preposition and 
relative pronoun would be more elegant and expressive ; as, x\n account was drawn 2?i which (not where) their suffer- 
ings were represented. 

5. Nouns are sometimes used as adverbs ; as, It is a trifle stronger. 

6. Two negatives in English are equivalent to an affirmative ; as. Nor did they not perceive him, is equal to They 
did perceive him. Hence it is inferred, that when a negative meaning is intended, we should use but one negative word 
in a simple sentence. Some of the negative words are 7iot, no, nor, neither, nothing, scarcely, hardly, &c. 

PHEPOSITIOH. 

A Preposition is a part of speech which serves to connect words and show the relation between them. For a prac- 
tical use of prepositions see under this head 32d page, Supplemental Grammar. 

CONJUNCTION. 

A Conjunction is a part of speech that serves to connect words and sentences. 

1. In some instances conjunctions strictly connect sentences ; as, Paris is not so large as London ; Seth writes better 



22 



COMPREHENSIVE GRAMMAR. 



than Charles. In the former sentence, as connects the clause or simple sentence, London is, partly understood, with 
the preceding one. In the latter sentence, than connects Charles ivrites, partly understood, with the preceding clause. 

2. Sometimes the sense will admit of conjunctions connecting either words or sentences ; as, Cfesar crossed the 
Rubicon, overran Italy, entered Rome, and seized upon the public treasury. Here we may connect the four verbs by 
the conjunctions and expressed and understood, or so many different sentences, and repeat the first nominative for each, 
or supply the pronoun he. In such cases where the connection is close, good judgement seems to dictate the connection 
of words, but where the connection is loose, the connection of sentences. 

3. By use of conjunctions language is rendered more densT and comy>rehensive. Whnt is expressed in the sentence, 
John, James and Joseph went to New York, without conjunctions, would require three simple sentences — John went to 
New York, James went to New York, Joseph went to New York. In parsing such compact sentences we properly con- 
nect words, and have a rule for the verb's agreement accordingly. In analyzing, we would reckon tlie three nouns a 
compound subject, equal to, The three brothers, John, James and Joseph, went to New York. When a sentence con- 
tains two or more verbs, and the same affirmation is made of each, they may be most fitly taken together and called a 
compound predicate ; though, philosophically considered, it can be resoived into as many simple sentences as there are 
verbs. Example : We should love, fear, and obey our parents. 

4. Sometimes conjunctions necessarily connect words only, as the affirmation cannot be made of each subject taken 
separate ; thus. His watch and chain are worth ninety dollars ; The side A, the side B, and the side C, form a triangle; 
Ralph and Ruth are a happy couple. We cannot say his watch is worth 90 dollars, and his chain is worth 90 dollars. 

5. In nice cases of connecting words, we must see if the same construction will bear with the word we connect, as 
with the one with which it is connected ; if not, it cannot be connected with it; thus, Vv'ith all the presence of mind, 
judgement, and sagacity that could be expected, &c., judgement and sagacity are not connected with mind, because it 
don't make sense to say, presence of judgement, and presence of sagacity; but it gives the meaning to say, with all the 
judgement and sagacity, &c., therefore they are connected with presence. Take another example : The present parti- 
ciple generally ends in ing; as, moving. Moving is not connected by as with the noun ing, for that would make out 
that the present participle generally ends in moving ! As must either connect a following sentence, " Moving ends in 
ing,^^ (most of which is to be supplied,) with the preceding, or moving in apposition with participle. The latter is 
preferable. 

INTEE-JECTIOl^. For remarks under this head, feee Interjection in Supplemental Grammar. 



NOTES IN CONNECTION WITH THE EULES 



UNDER RULE II. 
,\, Note 1. An adjective sometimes belongs to a verb in the infini- 
tive mood, or to a part of a sentence; as, To die is inevitable; To 
walk in the morning is healthful. And sometimes it belongs to a 
sentence, or whole proposition; as, Antiochus acted the part of a 
vile and detestable person, agreeable to what hath been afore- 
mentioned of him. 

UNDER RULE III. 

Note 1. The infinitive mood or a part of a sentence is some- 
times the nominative to a verb, in whicli case the verb must be of 
the thii'd person singular; as, To err is human; To write a neat 
hand requires practice. 

UNDER RULE IV. 

Note 1. Participles are sometimes used indefinite, or without 
reference to any noun or pronoun ; as, Generally speaking, his 
conduct was lionorable. 

Note 2. Participles are sometimes the object of a preposition or 
transitive verb, and at the same time govern a noun in the objec- 
tive case, — and sometimes a pronoun in the possessive. 



UNDER RULE V. 

Note 1. When a pronoun refers to two or more pronouns, of 
different persons, connected by and, it should agree with the first 
in person in preference to the second, and with the second in prefer- 
ence to tlie third j as. You and / must mind our P's and Q's; 
You and James must mind your study. 

Note 2. When nouns expressing persons of different sex, are 
connected by or or nor, their pronoun should be of the plural 
number; as, It is accounted almost uncivil with the polite, to ask, 
when in company, a gentleman or a lady their age. 

UNDER RULE TIL 

Note 1. Adverbs sometimes qualify nouns, the article included 
sometimes; as, JVearly a suit of new clothes was burnt; He went 
almost half way with me; By solitude here is meant, a temporary 
seclusion from the world. They in some instances qualify prepo- 
sitions; as, He went almost to Boston; Let down exactly over his 
head. 

Note 2. They sometimes qualify a part of a sentence; as. He was 
content to purchase repose, even by the most humiliating sacrifice. 



COMPREHENSIVE GRAMMAR. 



23 



UNDER RULE VIII. 

Note 1. When participles are usecl as nouns, they often in like 
manner govern the possessive case ; as, His having been addicted 
to intemperance, &c. ; Much will depend on the pupil's composing. 

Note 2. When two or more nouns connected imply joint posses- 
sion, the possessive form should be given to the last term only; as, 
John and Eliza's books. But if separate ownership is implied, the 
possessive sign should be given to each noun; thus, John's and 
James's money was stolen. 

Note 3. AV hen possession is denoted by two or more nouns com- 
ing together in apposition, the sign is generally annexed to the lasf 
term only; as, John the Baptist's head. But when a pause is 
proper, and the governing noun is not expressed, the possessive 
sign should generally be annexed to the first noun only, especially i 
when the possession is expressed by more than two nouns; as, He j 
bought the knives at Smith's, the bookseller; The silk was pur- 
chased at Brown's, the mercer and haberdasher. 

Note 4. It is seen in the preceding rules and examples, that 
unless perspicuity requires it, we should aim to avoid the unpleas- 
ant appearance of several possessive nouns coming together, by 
employing, in part, some other word or woixls which denote pos- 
session, as the woi'd belong or belonging, and of prefixed to the 
name of the possessor, which is equivalent to the noun with the 
possessive form. Then mstead of saying, Mr. Milton's sister's 
husband's house was burnt, we would give it thus; A house be- 
longing to a brother-in-law of Mr. Milton, was burnt: Or, to 
make the individual more definite, — A house was burnt, belonging 
to the husband of Mr. Milton's sister. Here we employ belonging 
to express one possessive, of before the noun to express another, 
and the possessive form of the noun for the other — which form a 
harmonious variety. 

Note 5. To render the expression easy and agreeable to the ear 
we sometimes make a use of the possessive like the following : The 
duke of Bridgewater's canal. The meaning is left entirely clear, 
and the expression is elegant. 

Note 6. Little explanatory phrases between the possessive case 
and the word which governs it, are particularly awkward and 
should be avoided; as. She began to extol the farmer's, as she 
called him, excellent understanding. It should be. The excellent 
understanding of the farmer, as she called him. 
UNDER RULE IX. 

Note 1. In some situations nouns carry the appearance of being 
governed by a transitive verb, when in reality they are governed 
by a preposition understood ; as, He resided several yeai-s in that 
street, i. e. during several years; He traveled seven miles an hour; 
i. e. over the space or distance of seven miles in an hour. 

Note 2. Prepositions are often omitted before pronouns ; as. 
Give it me; buy him some books; i. e. to me, for him. Also after 
the adjective near, and the participle adjoining; as. Bring them 
near the truth; a garden adjoining a river; to the truth, to the 
river. After worth as an adjective, of is understood, and after 
like as an adjective or adverb, to is understood, which govern the 
cases after them; as. The knife is worth a dollar, i. e. worth of a 



dollar; Seth is like his fether, i. e. like to his fither. Horns, aftei* 
a verb denoting motion tc, is always used without to. 

UNDER RULE XIL 

Note 1. Rule 12th is to be applied, and not Rule 13th, in all 
cases where a verb or participle intervenes ani the two word^ 
mean the same person or thing. Ihis rule embraces also nouns 
coming after a verb or participle, expressing what that which is 
denoted by the first noun, is turned into; as, A calf becomes an 
ox. An ox is not a calf, but it shows what the calf is chano-ed 
into. 

Nero a beggar will die, conveys a different meaning from, Nero 
will die a beggar. The former only affirms that he is now a beggar 
and will at some time die; the other asserts that he will be a beg- 
gar when he dies, and nothing more. 

Note 2. The nominative to a verb often follows it. When a 
question is asked and there are two nominatives, the first is parsed 
the nominative case after the verb, and the second the nominative 
to it; as. Who art thou? in the order of pamng — thou art who. 
And when both nominatives come after the verb, the first in order 
is the nominative to the verb, and the second the nominative after 
it; as, Art thou the Thracian robber? 

Note 3. Sometimes when there is no question asked, that which 
is more prominently the subject of the afiirraation, is placed after 
the verb to give it force; as. But the end thereof are the ways of 
death. Here the vei'b agrees with waijs as being the more direct 
subject of the affirmation, and placed after the verb to give it em- 
phasis. 

UNDER RULE XIV. 

Note I. A noun used with an interjection, or with a note of ex- 
clamation, may be passed as an exclamatory phrase, or we may 
jDarse it by the following rule: A noun used in an exclamation, 
and disconnected with the rest of the sentence, is in the nominative 
case independent. 

UNDER RULE XVII. 

Note 1. As after so, than after a comparison, and sometimes 
the adverb how, are the immediate governing words of the infini- 
tive mood; as. An object so high as to be invisible; He knows 
better than to do\t\ I know not how to address you. 

Note 2. It is sometimes governed by a preposition; as, My 
friend is about to leave. 

Note 3. It is sometimes governed by a part of a sentence; as. 
We used our best endeavors to be serviceable to the commonwealth. 



Additional Notes. 

Note 1. Two or more nouns or pronouns connected by and 
require their verbs, nouns and pronouns to be of the plural num- 
ber; as, Socrates and Plato were wise men; They Vf eve eminrait 
philosophers. 

Note 2. Two or more nouns connected by and, meaning the 
same person or thing, require their verb, noun and pronoun to be 
of the smgular number; as, The milliner and mantuamaker was 
there. 

Also, when two nouns arc connected by and to express the 



24 



COMPREHENSIVE GRAMMAR. 



name of one tiling, the verb, &c., must be of the singular num- 
ber; as. The Statesman and Journal is a good paper. 

Note 8. When two or more nouns connected by and are pre- 
ceded by each or every, their verb, &c., must be of the singular 
number; as, Each man, woman and child receives a share. 

Note 4. Two or more nouns or pronouns in the singular num- 
ber connected by or or 72or require their verbs, nouns and pronouns 
to be of the singular number; as, John or James is the ^oy. 

Note 5. When a singular noun or pronoun and a plural one 
are connected by or, or nor, the verb must agree with the plural 
one, and the plural one generally placed next to the verb; as, 
Neither poverty nor riches were injurious to him. 



REMARKS. 

The word as is applied variously. 

1. It is sometimes used as a relative pronoun and is equivalent 
to which or thai; as, It^ inhabitants ai'e hardy and industrious, as 
is common in new countries Here as refers to the preceding 
clause — Its inhabitants are hardy and indvistrious. " The argu- 
ments were such as follow. ' ' In the last sentence, as parsed as a 
relative pronoun refers to the adjective noun such; but it can be 
parsed in a sentence like this, as a conjunction only, by supplying 
a brief sentence and the relative which for a subject; thus, such 
as those are, which follow. 

2. As, immediately pi-eceding an adjective or an adverb, is an 
adverb; as. The humble cottage contains as much content, &c. ; 
He read as well, but not so loud as James. 

3. But as is commonly a conjunction connecting sentences; as, 
Susan is not so tall as Sarah ; i. e. as Sarah is. 

It often connects two nouns, or a noun and pronoun, in appo- 
sition; as, They treated us a.s friends. Sometimes when there are 
two nouns of the same meaning, as connects the noun "with the 
verb which it is the case after; as, John sailed as captain. Cap- 
tain is the case after sailed, and as connects captain with it. The 
order — John as captain sailed, will not make certain the meaning 
intended. (See Note 1 under Rule XII.) 

Other instances sometimes occur, in which as connects different 
parts of speech ; thus. We considered man as belonging to differ- 
ent societies. As here connects belonging with man. 

4. An adjective is occasionally used indefinitely; as. To be 
faithful among the fxithless argues great strength of principle; 

To be wise and good, is to be great and 7whle. By supplying 
•words these adjectives will admit of various application and make 
sense; thus, For me to be faithful, for us to be faithful, for you, 
&c., for them, or, for any person to be faithful among the faith- 
less, argues, &c. But there is a difficulty in thus filling up, a 
preposition without relation. A verb in the infinitive mood has 
partly the noun nature; then it would be quite as well in such 
cases, to say nothing about the application of the adjective, but 
parse to be faithful as a phrase noun, qualified by the adjunct 
immediately following it, and nominative to argues; the same as if 
it read, faithfulness among the faithless, &c. But if we supply a 
word for the adjective the possessive case would be preferable, and 
would aToid an anpmalous use of a preposition ; thus, Our being 



faithful, &c., a person's being faithful, &c. Applying these pos- 
sessives to the infinitive mood, is the same thing, though it does 
not appear so familiar; as, Our to hQ faithful, &c., a person's to 
be faithful, &c. Thus we with some propriety apply the adjective 
to our, or whatever possessive we use. 

5. The word but, when it has the meaning of except, has been 
parsed by many as a preposition, but it has not the nature of a 
preposition. The venerable Murray parses it, in such a use, as a 

1 conjunction, as it commonly is, necessarily understanding some- 
j thing. Most graduates of colleges follow his manner; thus, in the 
sentence, "None but the temperate enjoy life," they would parse 
j None enjoy life, as one sentence, and The temperate enjoy life, 
I partly understood, as another sentence, and but connecting them. 
I Some of our learned lexicographers consider but in this sense to 
be derived from the Saxon w^-ord be-utan, a verb in the imperative 
mood, meaning in English, be out. Thus in the foregoing exam- 
ple, one can parse but a verb in the imperative mood, governing 
the word temperate. INlui-ray's Avay amounts to the same thing, 
and it saves departing from the long established use of the woi'd. 

6. Sometimes a conjunction requires the iiadicative form of the 
verb, and sometimes the subjunctive. 

Whea there is both doubt and reference to future time, the verb 
should generally be in the subjunctive form; but when there is 
not b®th doubt and refei-ence to future time, it should generally be 
in the indicative form. 



False GraiMnsar, 

Under figure 5 on the use of the Adjective. 
This is the best apple of the two. Which of these three kites is 
the higher ? James and Samuel are studying grammar, but as 
the latter is the most diligent of the two, he will px^obably obtain 
a knov^'ledge of it the soonest. Of two evils we should choose the 
least. The least that is said is tlie soonest mended. His parents 
frequently visited him, but his mother much the oftenest. 
Under figure 8 on the use of the Adjective. 
These kind of indulgences softons and injures the mind. Those 
sort of favors did real injury under the appearance of kindness. 
I have not seen my parents this six months. I have been waiting 
for you this three hours. I never saw one of those kind of birds 
before. 

Under Remark figure 6. 

I shall walk out to-day unless it rains. Although the fiict be 
extraordinary, it certainly did happen. If there be a cavity in 
the centre of the earth, it cannot be ascertained. If the sky is 
clear, we shall witness the eclipse. No one engages in that busi- 
ness unless he aim at reputation. Although he were thy friend, 
he did not justify thy conduct. 

If thou have promised, be faithful to thy engagement. Unless 
he have improved, he is unfit for the oflice. If thou had succeed, 
perhaps thou would not be the happier for it. Unless thou can 
fairly support the cause, give it up honorably. 

If the distance be over fifty miles, the postage will be one and a 
half cent. 



CRITICISMS 



IN 



ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX; 



OR, 



A SUPPLEMENTAL GRAMMAR: 



CONTAINING MUCH THAT IS NEW, ORIOINAL, AND IxAIPORTANT. 



WHILST IT IS DESIGNED PRINCIPALLY FOR THE HIGHER CLASSES OF GRAMMARIANS, AND TO IMPROVE 

THE LANGUAGE OF MANY IN A VERY EXTENSIVE CIRCLE OF SOCIETY, IT WILL BE FOUND 

ALSO A PROFITABLE AND AN ENCOURAGING BOOK FOR BEGINNERS. 



**MuItum in parvo," vcre. 



(jr%.^.j^^r<SUi^j^^"l <w^^-' " "^-^^ 



BY A NOKTH AMERICAN TEACHER, 



GARDINER: 

PRINTED FOR THE AUTHOR, BY MORRELL & HEATH. 

1854. 



ADVERTISEMENT TO THE PUBLIC 



Lest the profeBslons in the title page of this -work might seem to cast a disrespect on compilers of grammars generally, and arrogat 
to himself some extraordinary merit, the author thought it becoming here to make a brief statement in his behalf. 

An instructor of district schools from his early youth twelve years, in all of which grammar was made a principal study, averaginj 
nearly four months in the employment each year — and thenceforward, having made the teaching of this branch an exclusive professioi 
for the last twenty-one years, and been almost constantly employed in it during that period — generally carrying on two schools th 
same term, devoting three hours in a day to each, — it should be expected that the author can tdl something new in this departmcn 
of literature. 

But more than this; — most of his scholars have been of a higher order than those who attend to grammar elsewhere. His pupil 
liave consisted largely of teachers and advanced grammarians who were through this study in other schools. Besides such scholars 
his classes generally included more or less married persons, some of whom were of good education, already distinguished, and com 
paratively critical in this attainment. As his course of instruction closed at the expiration of four weeks, and he did not often have i 
second term in succession in a place, his employment carried him through a large extent of population, so that the author reaped th 
advantage of the queries, suggestions, criticisms, and opinions, given birth to by the different geniuses, tastes, talents, and literar; 
acquirements of people over a large portion of New England.* His mind, as a matter in course, became engrossed in this subjec 
alone; so that whenever he heard or read language, he made it a lesson tributary to his profession. He has found that we have som 
■which may be called national errors, they are so general. 

In settling on what shall be callal correct, and what incorrect language, the author has, in all but one or two instances, (as h 
course he should do,) made the language of the best scholars of Great Britain his model. Such American scholars as rank witl 
Quincy, Everett, Pierpont, Bancroft, Irving, Professor Goodrich, Bryant, — accord to the best English usage. If they depart ft'om i 
in any instance, it is not intentional. In all his decisions on points of language, he has had a reference to the best usage of the Ian 
guage at the present day. 

Thus the author has given, in the following pages, what his long exijerience and superior opportunities have enabled him to acquire 
He has done nothing for novelty sake. The alterations he has made, truth and simplicity, the good of the learner — constrained hir 
to make. In addition to those advantages, the work has cost the author much time and research, and close and laborious thought. I 
a few instances the matter might be compressed into a smaller compass, did time permit of it. Some may complain that there is a 
exuberance of examples in a variety of instances; but the author has little to fear on that point. He has not written this work t 
teach philosophers and scholars, but those who do not profess to know these things — such as are desirous to learn and are willing to b 
taught; and younger minds, as well as those of mature understanding. It is often the case that an example of illustration in on 
ihape, vrill strike the minds of some with conviction, which, in another form, it would fail to do. 

How this little volume will meet the public view is yet unknown. But having had the testimony of more than five thousand pupil 
that such instruction is called for and would be appreciated by many of the youth of our country, the author sends it forth, howeve 
imperfect, not without confidence, that by them it will be well received. 

M.iiNE, Nov. 1858. THE AUTHOR. 

P. S. — To his pupils and friends who have for some time had this work in prospect, he would thankfully say, that there have bee 
necessary causes for its long delay, which need not here be mentioned. He hopes it will meet their expectation. 

As it was not convenient to issue a large number at this time, this edition will be sold only by the author and two or three selec 
agents. He can be addressed on the subject, by his signature, at Waterville, Me. — post paid, and a reply will be immediately made. 

A communication from any literary friend, suggesting any improvement or alteration in the work, will be thankfully received. 



* Poubtless in no part of the world do all classes of the people speak and write the English lan^age so well, as in that small spot of the globt call« 
Kt\r England. 

Enier§d according to an Ad of Congrm, in th€ year 18^3, by Morbmx & Heath, in the Ckrk't Office of the District Court of Maim 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



Grammar, in a general sense, is the art of speaking and writing correct language. Hence the English Grammar is 
the art of speaking and writing correct English. 

WORDS. 

Words are articulate sounds, used b}'" common consent, as signs of our ideas. 

Words, for the most conveniently acquiring a knowledge of the right application of them to practice, are divided 
into ten classes or sorts ; the names of which are Article, Noun, Pronoun, Adjective, Verb, Participle, Adverb, Prep- 
osition, Conjunction, and Interjection. 

ARTICLE. 

An article is a word placed before a noun to limit its signification. There are two articles, a or an, and the. A or an 
is an indefinite article. The is a definite article. 

With regard to the application of the articles, subjects may be considered of two kinds, indefinite and definite. A or 
an should be applied to an indefinite subject, and the should be applied to a definite subject, — that is, if an article i» 
required. Sometimes a noun is so used as not to require an article, as will be noticed in its order. An indefinite sub- 
ject is one which has not been made definite, A subject becomes definite several ways. 

1st. A definite subject is that which is well known or familiar, or something that has been previously pointed out to 
the mind of him tliat speaks, and that is spoken to ; as, Pass me the book, moaning some book previously referred to, 
or well known b}'- tlie person v/^ho is spoken to. So among the members of a family we say, The dog ; the well ; the 
orchard ; the blue pitcher. Among members of the same town or neighborhood we say. The mill ; the meeting house ; 
the bridge ; the pond, &c. And among people the globe over we say. The sun ; the moon ; the earth, — because all these 
things are known or are supposed to be familiar to those to whom we speak. They are therefore definite subjects of the 
first class. 

A. A subject ia»not to be considered as definite when it is only pointeil out by the explanation given in the last part of 
the sentence ; as. An account of the great earthquake which occurred at Lisbon, in the year 1755. That earthquake is 
not supposed to be generally known to readers in the middle of the nineteenth century, to whom an account of it might be 
given, therefore a should have been used instead of the. The following presents an error of the same kind : ^ It is in 
accordance with the law of Congress passed in the year 1829, diminishing the weight of gold in American coin. It is 
not a matter in course that the reader knows about this law, therefore the should be a. B. But if the person or thing, 
which is explained after it is named, is supposed to be known to those who hear or read our language, the would be 
proper. Example : My dear, says a husband to his wife, I will give you an anecdote about the sick man who stopped 
with us two years ago last new year's day. But to his little daughter he would say. My little girl, I will tell you a 
story about a man who stopped at our house on the night of your third birth day. The person alluded to is definite to 
the wife, and we use the; but not so to the daughter, and we use a. So if one man speaks to another about a law 
which is supposed to be well known to him — for instance, one legislator is speaking to another about such a law, it is 
then a definite subject and the would be proper. 

Persons who have traveled but little, and who are untaught in the precision of language, would be likely to mak» 
errors like the following : The French servant where I staid last night, stole my gloves'. The same would be likely to 

* What is not in this work is found in .any of the common grammars, one or more copies of which are .amony the books of almost every family In Sew 
England. 



4 RULES FOR THE ARTICLE. 

gay to a ttaveling stranger, who should inquire the way, Keep this road till you come to the bridge, then turn to the 
right and proceed till you come to the mill, &c. These subjects would be definite to him that should speak, but not to 
him that should be spoken to. Such making of definite subjects would be like the language of a man who having 
traveled suddenly three hundred miles from his accustomed neighborhood, begins to talk with the strangers, about the 
doings of Uncle Heartgood, Esq. Mason, and Deacon Bray, persons familiar to him, but of whom the company knew 
nothing. He should have said, a neighbor, or home acquaintance of mine, does or says this or that. One or two more 
examples and we close under figure 1. Says James to Thomas, there are four girls in this room. But three, says 
Thomas. Positively four, continues James : Lucy, Jane, Ruth, and^a little girl hid in the clock-case. As James is 
aware that the fourth girl is entirely unknown and even unguessed by Thomas, the sense plainly suggests to James the 
right article. But in a soliloquy, he would properly and as naturally say, I will find the girl hid in the clock-case. 

C. Things made definite by adjectives of order, or b}^ any adjective, may be reckoned of this class ; as, The first, the 
twentieth, &c. ; the nigh ox, the left hand, &c. 

2. When all the individuals of a given number or class are disposed of except one, the remaining one becomes 
definite; as. Mother, please cut the pie into quarters, — give me one quarter, James another, Nathan another, and 
Jane the other. The is used before the last quarter because that had become definite. You hold one end of the rope, 
and I will hold the other. A. But it is seen that, in such a case, all but the last named are indefinite subjects and 
should not have the definite article applied to them. 

3. A thing is a definite subject when it is well known that there is only one of the kind belonging to something else 
which is known ; as. The stem of an apple; The head of a pin ; The captain of a ship. We see how stem, head and 
captain are definite subjects. A. But there are cases which may easily be mistaken for this class of definite subjects, 
which on a close examination are seen not to belong to it ; as. Whoever shall find and return it, shall receive the reward 
of one dollar ; Whoever courteth praise shall receive the reward of praise ; Whoever labors with his hands shall receive 
the reward of labor. The definite should be applied only in the last of these sentences ; although at first view all three 
seem to require the same article. Reward of one dollar is like a crown of gold, which means a golden crown, — a one 
dollar reward. Thus we see the propriety of a to reward. The same may be said of the second sentence ; praise is the 
reward ; therefore it is not a definite subject, and a should have been used. But in the third sentence the meaning is 
difierent ; labor is not the reward, but possesses the reward, and as she may justly be said to possess but one reward, 
embracing a competence, a good appetite, rest, sweet sleep, &e., it is a definite subject belonging to class third. 

4. Things are sometimes definite from the circumstance, time, or place with which they are connected, or to which 
they relate, or by contrast ; as. He dug into the earth ; He went into the water ; i. e. the earth and water where they 
were. The weather was warm ; The air is cold this morning ; i. e. the weather on a certain occasion, and the air of 
this morning and where we are. The steak and the cofiee were good, but the pastry was poor ; meaning the steak, 
coffee, and pastry referred to on a particular occasion. A. Some things are definite in distinction from other parts 
with which they are connected ; as. The head and the lungs are vital parts ; The health of the mind Is intimately con- 
nected with the health of the body. Head and lungs are definite in distinction from other parts of the body ; mind and 
body are definite in distinction from each other. 

5. The is sometimes applied to a noun denoting no definite individual, but a definite class — definite in contradistinc- 
tion to other kindred classes ; as. The noun is soon learned ; The glazier's business was unknown to the ancients ; The 
boar of the woods ; The horse is a noble animal. No definite individual is referred to in these instances. Noun 
represents the class of words under this name, definite in reference to the other nine classes ; glazier means all glaeiers, 
definite in distinction from the other classes of employment ; as, the carpenter, the smith, the farmer, the merchant, the 
doctor, the lawyer, &c. The same may be said of the other two nouns. 

6. The definite article is sometimes used by way of eminence, or to give dignity to the subject ; as. The saint ; the 
hero ; the Lord ; the great Alexander ; it fell like the thunderbolt. Saint here is not meant as a definite individual, nor 
is the word taken in its most extensive sense. 

7. The is often used instead of a noun or pronoun in the possessive case ; as. Pure water is the best thing for the 
complexion ; i. e. for a person's complexion. 

8. The definite article is sometimes used before adverbs of the comparative or superlative degree, to mark the degree 
more strongly or to define it more precisoly ; as. The more T read the book, the better I like it. Many cases now follow 
where no article should be uspd. 



RULES FOR THE ARTICLE. ^ 

0. It Is needless to say that a proper name requires no article, as that is definite of itself; unless by way of emi- 
nence, or spoken of as a common noun. 

10. When a noun is used as merely the name of a thing, no article should be used ; as, This is beer, not water ; Fill 
it with air. 

11. When a noun without any definitive or adjunct is taken in its most extensive sense, no article should be used ; as, 
Horses are useful ; Dogs are faithful ; Man is mortal ; Matheinatics is a hard study ; S is a crooked letter ; Oil is 
different from essence ; Air is an invisible fluid. Errors to be referred to this instruction are not only very common, 
but they often escape the notice of literary people ; as, What kind of a noun is it ? What sort of an instrument do 
you play ? Noun here means all nouns — it is a'kind of all the nouns that are. The same of instrument; therefore 
tlic article in both casss should be omitted. There is however one exception to this rule ; as when the singular number 
represents a class as definite in reference to other kindred classes ; as, The horse is a noble animal ; meaning all horses, 
and definite in distinction from other quadrupeds. (See figure 5.) 

12. When all the individuals in a described class or number, limited by an adjective, adjunct, or explanatory phrase 
are meant, the definite article should be applied ; as. The black people in some of the States are almost as numerous as 
the whites. The ladies who are to go in the Lowell stage are informed that it is ready. The essence of peppermint ia 
a good medicine. The affirmation is made of all the individuals, and of all the essence, described in those sentences. 

13. The clown who, as the story is, assured the philosopher that ichite sheep eat more than black ones, and asked him 
to tell the reason, was essentially defective in his assertion by lack of this use of the article. Without the before while 
and black, only an equal number of each is implied, therefore his assertion was false. But he did not mean, nor do we 
know it to be a fact, that an equal number of white sheep eat more than black ones, for the cause he said was, that 
there were more of them. His language was therefore not according to his meaning ; he should have said, Sir, why is 
it that the lohite sheep eat more than the black ones? it is certain that the}- do. 

14. But if only an indefinite portion of such described class is meant,' we should use no article ; as. Good men can be 
hired for twelve dollars a month ; Bills of the performance can be had at the door ; lie was cured with essence of 
peppermint. Not all the good men, — not all the bills of the performance, — not with all essence of peppermint ; but 
an indefinite number or quantity of each is meant — some of them, some of it. 

15. When two or more adjectives standing in connection show the quality of the same thing or things, the article 
should generally be applied only to the first noun ; as, A red and white flag ; The high and mighty states ; — one flag, 
which is red and white — states both high and mighty. 

IG. But if each adjective qualifies a difixjrent tiling, perspicuity generally requires the article to be repeated before 
the other noun or nouns ; as, The old and the new world — meaning two worlds (eastern and western continents) com- 
paratively called so. 

17. When we refer to a term spoken of merely as a word, it should have no article ; as, He conferred on him the title 
of dtike ; not a duke. 

18. There is a ease in which a regard to the omission or application of a or an is necessary to determine the meaning ; 
thus. He is a greater philosopher than scholar, w^ould mean that he is a greater philosopher than he is a scholar. But 
if we mean he is a greater philosopher than a scholar is, a should be applied. The following use seems to belong next. 

19. When the number or quantity of any thing is intended to be expressed in a positive manner, the article a or an 
should be used ; but when a negative meaning is intended, the article should be omitted. Thug, if we say. He spoke 
with a little reverence, our meaning is positive and we rather praise the person ; but if we say. He spoke with little 
reverence, our meaning is negative and we dispraise him. Few were pleased, and a few were pleased, convey quite 
different meanings. The former expression leaves it doubtful whether any were pleased ; the latter assures us that 
some were pleased. 

20. Nouns made definite by the application of an adjective derived from a proper noun, or a proper noun used as an 
adjective, do not necessarily require an article, though taste would use it in some such cases ; as, He is attending 
Hampden Academy ; He graduated from Harvard University ; He is cashier of Thomaston Bank ; They study English 
Grammar. But though the noun is thus made definite, when one thing is contrasted to another, the article should be 
used ; as. The English Grammar is more easily learned than the French ; The Thomaston Bank redeems its paper. In 
the last instance the contrast is but dimly seen, though there is a comparison with other banks rather implied ; thus, 
to write the contrast. But the Lafavette Bank does not. 

1^. ' " 



RULES FOR THE ARTICLE. 



21. The article is fitly applied when the subject deserves emphasis or dignit}' of expression : The United States Bank. 

22. The following kind of indefinite subject should not escape our notice : The committee have formed a standard of 
weights and measures ; I am going to build a house. Says an infidel to his acquaintance — Christians say, the world 
wilfcome to an end, It will be clearly seen that all these are indefinite subjects. They have not formed the standard, 
for this standard did not exist till they formed it. House had not been brought to view, even in imagination, that we 
know of, till the person spoke of building it. There v\^as no end to the world previously had in view in the mind of the 
infidel and his companion. The indefinite article is therefore right in these three examples. But in reply to those 
remarks, one would properly say. What is the standard they have formed? Hovvt large will the house be? because 
standard and house had been previously brought to mind, although the house is not yet built. We reply to a traveling 
strano-cr who makes an inquiry. Pass on till you come to a school-house, and you will find Mr. Jones in the next beyond 
the s3hool-house. The first school-house is indefinite, because it had not been previously introduced. But being intro- 
duced it has become definite, and the is applied. 

23. Another case of the omission of the article next claims our attention. It is when one person only is the possessor 
of a thlno-, or can be said to be possessed by another in the instance meant ; as, She is heir to one-fourth of the Bing- 
ham property. We cannot, by any rule of the article, sustain that heir is a definite subject, requiring the before it, for 
those to whom we speak are not supposed to know whether a part of the Bingham property, or the whole of it, has one 
heir or more than one. An or o, necessarily including the idea of one, would imply that there are or may be more 
heirs than one, which is not tlie mesniuo-. Further examples : He was prime jfiinisfer to King James the First, — not a 
prime minister; She is expected to be wife to Col. Laine. The language a wife would imply that he might have now or 
jn future, several wives, therefore a cannot be used. It is not a definite subject, — the wife does not in this case exist ; 
therefore the definite article would be wrong. She is the intended loifc of Col. Laine, is correct, because intended wife 
is already in view. 

24. Having given various guides for the application of the article and the omission of it, I now proceed to give a 
filass of cases in which the application, and the oniission of it, depends on good taste, and a fitness which is better seen 
than described. Examples : A. Boston harbor is closed with ice ; B. The Boston Cadets appeared in uniform ; A. He 
is in f^reat haste ; B, She is in a great hurry ; A. The wheel moves without noise and without friction ; B. It passed 
oir wfth a great noise ; -1. The stream flows with great rujiidity ; B. It moves with a rapidity Avhich can scarcely be 
conceived of. In these four examples for contr;isting the omission with the application of the article, the two cases are 
of the same nature ; yet in the one instance we omit the articb, and in the other we supply it — from a fitness of whicli 
we can better conceive than describe. 

25. In colloquial and familiar use it is most customary to give the title Rev. without the article ; as. In which house 
does Rev. Mr, Bond live? But when a person is spoken of in a situation wliioh requires more dignity of expression 
than usual, the article is prefixed ; as, A letter from the Rev. Vi\ Judson to the Baptists of the United States. ,. 

Besides all the foregoing instruction on the use of the article, there are sometimes instances that#'equire a shade's 
diffijrent notice. 

26. W^hen the application of an article, which otherwise would be proper, gives more empjiasis to the word than is 
ad^vpted t) the meaning, it should be suppressed ; as, Card, (heading of a paragraph of thanks, &c.,)— not A Card. 
A card would be like making too great a preamble about a small story. O, in the folloAving, strictly admits of an 
fxYkido, but to avoid an appearance of formality, it is ]\at used : >.Iany nouns ending in o receive es for the plural. 

27. If a subject does not require the definitiraitiele by any of the foregoing rules, the indefinite must be used, unless 
it li, a case requiring no article. See just before figure 1. 



CoTiB?:CTio^% A to :)tl)nr]>e Avith oil of cloves. S^e figure 14, in tVie f.ilse syntax, 



NOUN. — ITS NUMBER. 



NOUM. 

A Noun is a word which is the name of any person, phice, or thing. 

On the ]^^U3ssl»cr of tl»c Nouu> 

Number in grammar, applied to a noun or pronoun, is that form of the word by which it is made to express either a 
unity, or a plurality of objects.* The singular number is that form of the noun which expresses but one thing. The 
plural number is that form of the noun which expresses more objects than one ; thus, pen is a singular noun, expressing 
but one pen ; pens is a plural noun, expressing more pens than one. So man is a singular noun, and men a plural one. 

1. The plural number is generally formed by annexing an s to the singular ; as, pen, pens ; sea, seas ; truth, truths. \ 
When the addition of s does not combine in sound with the word, or last syllable of it, we pronounce another syllable ; 
as, house, houses, rose, rases ; practice, practices. The same is to be observed when the 5 is annexed for possessive case ; 
as, Thomas's cane, pronounced as if Avritten Thomas-is, — The Church's prosperity, pronounced church-is. Plurals 
formed in the foregoing manner are called regular plurals. 

2. Nouns ending in x, ss, sh, or soft ch, form their plurals by adding es to the singular ; as, boA:, boxes; glass, glasses; 
fish, fishes; but in ch hard, the noun receives 5 only for the plural ; as, monarch, 7nonarchs. 3. Many nouns ending in 
o receive es for the plural; as, cargo, cargoes; hero, heroes; negro, negroes; potato, potatoes; volcano, volcanoes; whilst 
some nouns terminating in o have the regular plural ; as, folio, folios; seraglio, seraglios. 

Nouns ending in y preceded by a consonant, make the plural by changing the y into ies; as, vanity, vanities ; cherry, 
cherries, &c. ; but when the y is preceded by a vowel, s only is added; as, chimney, chimneys; money, moneys; delay ^ 
delays; hey, heys ; joy, joys. A variety of nouns follow which deviate from the foregoing rules. 

5. Many nouns ending in. f, ov fe, form their plural by changing the termination into ves ; as, life, lioes ; wife, Knives; 
calf, calves; shelf, shelves; beef, beeves ; sheaf, sheaves; thief, thieves; wolf, wolvis, &c. Wharf by the best English usage 
has the regular plural loharfs ; but in the United States the irregular plural wharves is in general use. Some of the 
best scholars, however, in our own country, make the plural loharfs * as, " The two longest wharfs are at Boston and at 
New Haven." — Noah Webster — Professor Goodrich, " And I saw Ara.cl with its wharfs.'''' — Kossuth. % 

A few nouns ending in / have the regular plural ; as, grief, griefs; reproof, reproofs; relief, reliefs; and a few others. 

G. Those ending in ff have also the regular plural ; as, rufi^, ruffs, &c. ; except staff, the plural of which is generally 
staves. 

7. The following in the formation of their plural are a distinct class from the preceding, a part of which are adopted 
from the dead languages : 

Mail, men; woman, women; child, children; ox, oxen; foot, feet; tooth, teeth; go&se, geese; mouse, mice; beau, beaux; a. brother, 
brothers or brethren; b. penny, pence or penrnes; c. die, dies or dice; d. index, indexes or indices; e. genius, genii or geniuses; 
II basis, bases; axis, axes; ellipsis, ellipses; empihasis, emphases; hypothesis, hypotheses; parenthesis, parentheses; radius, radii; 
phenomenon, jihenomena; criterion, criteria or criterions; medium, mediums or media; memorandum, memorandums or memo- 
randa; encomium, encomiums or encomia; seraph, seraphim; cherub, cherubim. 

a. Brothers, when connected by consanguinity; and brethren when members of the same society; as, Our brethren in the church. 
h. Pence, when we mean the amount of money in pence; pennies when we mean pieces of money each of which is a penny. 

c. Dies, when we mean moulds for coining money; dice when we mean the cubical blocks for playing. 

d, Indexes, when signifying pointers; as, The indexes of that clock do not correspond to the hour meant: Indices when refen-ing to 
algebraical quantities. 

e,. Genii, when denoting aerial spirits; geniuses wlicn signifying persons of genius. 



* The definition of number as usually g'won in grammars is a]>plica1)le to arithmetic, hut I s-^e not how it can he to prraramar. What number is representM 
by that noun ? is a very different meaninp: from wliich number is that noun ? What is the number of your pew ? What number of sheep have you ? Which 
nnmber is the noun sheep? Of which number is books) In the last two sentences number is applied to the nouns sheep and books as expressive of their 
form to denote a unity or a plurality of things. In t'lc n?xt preceding sentence number has reference to o unity or a i>lurality of objects. In the other sen- 
t<'nce number has a still different meaning — mark, si;j;n, or brand, of your pew. 

\ Pronounced truths, not truthz. 

I The distinguished Hungarian was reputed elegant and tasteful in his language when addressLog the crowds (hat met him in our country. 

tl Pronounce e long in th.? plural termln.Ttion of the six following noun.?, and .s like z. 



8 ON THE NUMBER OP THE NOUN. 



Momy is given plural Avlien we mean dififereut sums or parcels of money; as. The moneys raised from the different societies 
amounted to ^50. 

The compounds of ma7i form the plural like the simple ; as, Husbandman ^ husbandmen. But mussulman not being compounded 
with a word of the same meaning as man in English, is mussulmans in the phiral. 

Seraph and cherub, adopted from the Hebrew language, are often used in our language with the regular English phiral — seraphs, 
cherubs. 

Beaus for the plural of this word we sometimes meet with, but most of the classical English scholars retain the French plural beaux, 
from which language it was adopted. 

Oxen is the only noun that retains in English the Saxon termination for the plural. Chicken is the Saxon plural for chick. Accord- 
ing to the ancient usage we should say, one chick, two chicken. But we have adopted the latter word for the singular, and made a 
regular plural from it. 

%. There is a class of nouns which have no plural termination ; many of which on account of the nature of the things 
thej represent, do not admit of the plural meining, they being reckoned b}^ weight or measure ; as, rye, barley, flax, 
hemp, Jiour, cloth, pride, pitch, &c. ; and the names of metals ; as, gold, silver, tin, &c. 

9. Some nouns of this nature are rendered plural when the various sorts of the article are meant; as, meat, meats; 
tea, teas; wine, wines ; cloth, cloths. This use of these nouns, with a few others like them, is now established by good 
authority and general usage. 

10. When our meaning is confined to one sort of this general nature, we should specify the kind : Thus, if I say, 
Meat is very dear this ssasjn, and mean but one kind, for instance, beef, I should have said. Beef, &c. But if I mean 
the various kinds of meat or meats generally, I should say, Meats arc very dear. But there are occasions where the 
general term is justified without using the plural, and without specifying the kind ; as, He does not drink tea. Teas 
would not be right, for it is not meant that he does not drink all kinds of tea ; and Souchong or some particular kind 
would not be right, because that is not the meaning. This instruction can be applied to any other cases of this kind. 

11. Various other nouns are confined to the singular termination, but admit of the plural meaning; as, cattle, deer, 
sheep, swine, spawn, vermin, offspring, &c. ; salmon, mackerel, and several other names of fish. The term fish is in good 
use bo*h with the plural termination and without it, with the plural meaning ; as, Those fish were caught in the lake — 
or those fishes. In the following a preference would be given to the plural : See the pretty gold fishes rolling in the 
glass vase of water. But when fish is spoken of as a species, or referrel to as a quantity only, the singular should be 
used ; as, The fish of the sea ; Fish is dear ; take care of that fish. The word biscuit seems to have a place here — it 
being tastefully confined to the singular termination, and in almost universal good use throughout our country. 

12. Talent is confined to the singular when one kind of talent only is meant ; as, He rose to power by aid of military 
talent. The plural is used when we would express different powers of the mind ; as. The choice fell on him for his 
known integrity, talents; and virtues. Hence one person may have talents, but he can properly be said to have but one 
talent of the same kind. 

13. Brain in all medical works and in all the dictionaries, as far as I have known, is given in the singular number 
ojjlj.. But aside from this, it is generally spoken and written in the plural. We may reckon the plural termination 
brains, an error which arose without having regard to the idea which it conveys. 

14. The word acquaintance, when it means a plurality of persons, is generally written in the plural ; as. His acquaint- 
ances were numerous. But in the following sentence it should be singular, if we suppose it to mean former knowledge : 
He is a person of my former acquaintance. In the next the plural is decidedly good : He is one of my old acquaintances. 
In the following a preference is not so clear : His whole circle of acquaintance are proud of him. In dignified associa- 
tion the plural meaning is sometimes preferred-with the singular noun ; thus. Which so shocked the whole assembly, 
that none even of his acquaintance durst venture to salute him. 

15.. There is another class of nouns which have the plural termination only. Some of these are almost universally 
connected with verbs of the plural number, as the following : 

Jlnnals, archives, ashes, bitters, bowels, compasses, clothes, breeches, drawers, dregs, embers, entrails, fetters, filings, goods, 
hatchesj ides, (pro. Idz,) nones, calends, lees, lungs, nippers, pincers or pinchers, sniffers, shears, scissors, tongs, tidings, thanks, 
vitals, victuals, shambles, antipodes, assets, colors, (military banners,) orgies, pleiads, minutice, literati, ^-c. 

16. Other words of this class though ending in an s, are, for the most part, accompanied with verbs of the singular 
number ; as, alms, bellows, (pro. bellus,) gallows, (gallus,) odds, news, billiards, sessions, measles, hysterics, physics, 
<fccoustic$, pneumatics, tactics, mathematics, mechanics, politics. Of odds, bellows, and gallows, it is evident, that if they 



ON THE NUMBER OF THE NOUN, 9 

express a plurality of the things, they must have plural verbs. Poina (laborious effort) is sometimes referred to as 
singular ; as, Why take this pains? Its collocation may decide a choice, as may be said, perhaps, of two or three of 
the foregoing. Riches and wages are generally connected with plural verbs. 

17. Means is treated either as singular or plural, according- as it conveys unity or plurality of idea; as, that 
means, if it stands for one thing ; those means, if it refers to more instruments or agencies than one. Hiatus, appa- 
ratus, series, species, superjices, and congeries, come under this extensive class, and are to be regarded either as singular 
or plural, according to the meaning they convey. 

„ 18. Pease should be thus written when the article is referred to as a species of grain, or as a quantity ; as. Pease 
grow in Maine ; a bushel of pease. But when we refer to the seeds or kernels as so many units, it should be written 
peas ; as, three peas. 

19. Compound nouns, where the principal word is put first, vary the principal word to form the plural, and the ad- 
junct to form the possessive case ; as, The two fathcrs-in-\'Aw of the young couple ; His father-in-Zcrttrs advice. 

20. Compounds ending in ful, and all those nouns in which the principal word is put first, form the plural by annex- 
ing an 5 to the compound word ; as. spoonfuls, not spoonsful. 21. But there are cases pronounced like this kind of 
compounds, in which full is a separate word and written different, — the noun meaning so many distinct measures ; in 
such instances the plural is formed according to the general rule ; as. Seven baskets full ; ten boxes full. 

22. Brace, dozen, and couple, arc generally confined to the singular termination ; as, Fifty brace of birds ; three dozen 
of bibles ; twelve couple were at the wedding. But in a use like the following, they should be given plural : He bought 
partridges in braces, and books in dozens ; they went in couples. 

23. Yoke when it means a pair, and sail when it means a vessel, are also confined to the singular termination ; as, 
Three yoke of oxen ; twenty sail of shipping. When this is not their meaning, they follow the general rule of plurals. 

24. Horse and foot meaning cavalry and infimtry, are used in the singular form, although connected with a plural 
verb and adjective ; as, A thousand horse are ready ; Ten thousand /oo/! were on the march. In these cases men are 
included in the idea. 

25. Pair and chaise in ordinary practice, are improperly confined to the singular number. They are subject to the 
plural form as nouns generally are. The possessive of u-ife, and of one or two other nouns, is often, by illiterate people, 
pronounced plural ; thus. His wives' relation. The sense here requires the singular 2r?/>'.?. 

26. When the same individual thing is claimed in common by more than one possessor, the name of the thing pos- 
sessed should be in the singular ; as, The boys love their school ; The globes are of equal diameter ; We will take the 
measure of them ; They have similar shape, size, and color. 27. Also when all the things referred to have one and the 
same name, the noun expressing it should be in the singular number ; as, What is the name of those things in your 
basket? Ans. Apple. Nairn is singular because there is but one name to all of them ; and ajiple should be singular 
because it is a name common to all of them. 

28. When the things or persons denoted either by a plural noun, or by nouns connected by and, are taken together to 
make Qne of that expressed by the following, the following is necessarily in the singular number ; as, Strawberries are 
a delicious fruit ; James, Julia, and Jane were her family. Music and poetry would be a great addition to her attain- 
ments. We give the following recommendations as a specimen of the many we have received. In the first two sentences 
the sense does not allow the following noun to be plural, for strawberries are but a fruit, and the three persons are 
necessarily taken together to make the family. But cases like the two last examples may admit of different reckoning. 
Music alone, and poetry alone, can truly be said to be an addition ; and each single recommendation can, with truth, be 
said to be a specimen. In cases like these good sense must decide whether the preceding nouns are most fitly reckoned 
together as making one of the following, or each taken alone as making one of the following, and consequently the \yhole 
requiring it plural. In the last examples good taste would decidedly prefer addition and specimen in the singular, as given. 

29. The following example may be classed here : The judgement of the committee has not been questioned. It takes 
all the committee together to make out this judgement. 

30. A noun of the plural form may require a plural pronominal adjective and a plural verb, yet if it mean but one 
thing, the noun standing for it must in consequence be of the singular number ; as, The snuffers are a convenient article. 

31. In a very few instances we apply a plural meaning to a singular noun which is subject to both the singular and 
the plural form ; as, The enemy were numerous. In the following a plural pronoun is used conveying unity of idea : 
We are not such a machine as a clock ; we used instead of man or person. 



10 ON THE NUMBER OP THE NOrX 



32. Rhetorically we sometimes disregard the general use of the plural : as, Reach the conscience of all persons ; Witli 
a lie in their mouth; From the crown of their heads. Such liberties should be taken only under the direction of sound 
judgement and good taste. 

33. When we connect two or more nouns by and, to cash of which is implied the same title as the one expressed, the 
title should be plural ; as. To Generals Brown and Scott ; To Thomas Bond and John Gray, Esquires. If there are two 
titles, only the one next to the nouns should be plural ; as, The Rev. Doctors Cox, Beecher and Mason. 

34. When we refer to two or more persons of the same surname, the title only should be in the plural ; as, The 
Misses Winslow are expected; Misses Ann and Mary Herrick ; The farms of the Messrs. Norwood ; The Captains Brown 
live here. This rule is now well established by far the majority of the best usage. It is also confirmed by the present 
literary practice of expressions like the following, which are analogous with the foregoing : The brothers Bingham are 
in partnership ; the witnesses Gould were against the prisoner ; the ladies Hamilton were in the carriage. Founded on 
these last examples, may be added the following remark : 35. AVhen a proper noun conveying a plural meaning, ex- 
plains a common noun preceding it, the proper noun must be of the singular number, and the common noun of the plural. 

A late author says, that in such cases Avhen the title is preceded by any of the numerals, two, three, &c., the proper 
name should be pluralized and not the title — similar to the following : The two sister Shepards attended the bride ; the 
three Dr. Blisses were called in, — instead of the two sisters Shepard ; the three Doctors Bliss. 3G. Although 1 regard 
with partiality the most of what this author says on grammar, yet I cannot see that either taste or philosophy requires 
this exception. It is evident that a proper noun not preceded by a title or other noun, should be plural if more than 
one are meant, whether joined with a numeral or not; as. The Stuarts; the twelve Ccesars ; the Howards of the age. 
Now as it is admitted that a proper noun expressing more than one of the same name, preceded with a title and no 
numeral, requires the title only to be plural, I see not wherein, when both are used, that the rule is any more than 
neutralized, and wh}- there is not as good reason for the title's taking preference in point of plurality, as for the other 
noun to do so. This I submit to the literary public to decide. 

37. Proper nouns signifying a plurality with the title Mrs. prefixed, pluralize the name and not the title ; as, The 
Mrs. Grays. 

38. Uses of a plural noun like the following, are established by universal good usage: Sing the first, second, and 
third verses; It occurred between the hours of nine and ten o'clock; Lords Wellington and Lynedoch ; The Bishops of 
Canterbury and York ; It is at the corner of Washington and Court streets; The north and south Parishes are five miles 
apart. But I am aware that some objector may remark in allusion to this use of the plural, that we say. The new and 
the old 100 rid ; Ancient and modern hist^ri/, and why not then say, Sing the first, second, and third vei'se, (not verses) \ 
There may also arise in his mind what may seem to him philosophical objections to those plurals. He will say, it is 
not first i'crs^s, second verses, &c., hut he would consider the meaning to apply thus ; Sing the first rerse, sing the 
second verse, and sing the third verse. That this use of the plural also makes out Bishops of Canterbury, and Bishops 
of York; Washington streets, and Court streets ; north parishes, and south parislics — which is not so. 

In regard to the objector's first example it depends on what connexion we put to it. If an account of the old and the 
new world is meant, with the article repeated it gives the sense, and as it is a long established expression, we would let 
it pass. The second example does not seem to be exactly of the kind that come under our present notice, as history in 
this sense, can be said to be both ancient and modern. The objector's method of rendering the third example, I admit, 
will give the sense ; but why not give the idea in a brief and comprehensive manner, instead of the mind's being made 
to go through with this tedious process. I will now endeavor to show the reader that this use of the plural is not only 
sustained by the best usage, but also by the principles of grammar and philosophical truth. 

39. First. I would turn the objector's difficulties against himself. He, and I suppose every one, will allow that the 
following language is correct : John and James are good boys ; My amiable cousins, Ann, Jane, and Susan, were 
present. But on the ground of the objector we must say, John and James js a good 607/ ; My amiable cousin, Arm, 
Jane, and Susan, was present, or express the idea in some other manner than what it is, — for we can't say, John are 
boys, James are boys — Ann is cousins, Ann were present ; but John is a boy, &c., Ann is a cousin, Ann was present, &c. 
It is seen that such objections prove too much, and therefore do not avail against the other examples. But it is asked 
how is such a use of the plural reconciled. 40. I answer, on the same principle that we sustain the following : Wil- 
liam and Mary are a happy couple; Two and three are five. The conjunction connects the words Williain and Mary, 
and not the sentences, " \Villiam is a happy couple," and " Mary is a happy couple," as this would be nonsense. So 



ON THE JS' UMBER OF TUE NOUN. 11 



in the other example, as the affirmation cannot be made of each separate. In such examples as I have adduced, we 
have only to consider the conjunctions as connecting the nouns or adjectives as words, and not connecting sentences, and 
the plural number is sustained by truth and a principle of grammar. If we have it verses, we necessarily make the con- 
junctions connect the adjectives first, second, and third. Canterbury and York, conjointly connected, have bishops. The 
•^\\xvd\ ■parishes mokQS north ^nH south connected as words ; ^o oV streets. But in the last two examples we are under 
the necessity of making the nouns plural. A corner must have streets ; at the corner of the streets Washington and 
Court. The parishes are five miles apart ; not, the north parish is five miles apart — the south parish is five miles apart. 
41. When we refer to a thing only as a material or kind of matter, the noun should generally be of the singular 
number ; as. That sloop was built of cedar. Cedars would not suit the sense, because we refer to cedar only as a 
material. 42. But, A row of cedars fronted the cottage, is correct, because we mean several trees^ called cedar. The 
engine consumes fifty bushels of coal an hour ; Ten tons of brick were used in the arch. Here again we refer to the 
material only. 43. But in the sentences, Set the basin on some live coals ; It took five hundred bricks for the oven, we 
refer to several particles of the former article, each of which is a coal. Thus we refer to brick in parts that axe 
numbered. 

44. So when we refer to a thing as a work only, the singular should be used ; as, Ten copies of Pope's Essay on Man. 
We refer to Essay as a work, and Pope had but one work of this name. 

45. An adjective denoting a plurality requires its noun to be of the plural number ; as. Two tons; five cords; The 
boxes are of various sizes. 46. But if the adjective expresses less than a plurality, its noun must be of the singular 
number ; as. One and a half mile. 

47. But when a noun in connection with an adjective of plurality, is itself used as an adjective, it should be of the 
singular number; as, A ionv foot rule; A three year old peach tree. Here /oo/ taken with /owr forms a complex 
adjective, and year is a part of the phrase adjective three year old. The following are familiar examples of the same 
use : A three story house ; a five cent piece ; a forty fathom line. 

48. " Proper nouns, and other parts of speech used as nouns or mere names, form the plural according to the gen- 
eral rule for nouns of like endings ; the Aristotles ; the ayes and noes, the ins and outs ; by sixes, by sevens, by fifties , 
two halves; His ands and his ors. One of the buts is superfluous. Three tens. Exceptions. Words ending in y after a 
consonant like the following, adopt the general rule and not the special rule ; as. The Livys ; The whys and bys. 

49. *' Letters, marks, and numerical figures, are made plural by annexing '5 ; as. Dot your i'5 and cross your fV. 
Your s's are not well made. The x 's and — 's are not in line. Four 6's == eight 3's. The 9's give place to O's. 

50. '* Words adopted without change from foreign languages, generally retain their original plural. A few of these, 
however, from common use, have also the regular English plural." — Bullions. 

CoKRECTioxs. Tuesdays, Thursdays, Saturdays. 27. JVominaiive, conjunctions, and. A verb can properly be said to hare but 
one nominative or subject, though two or more things are connected to make it. 



o z: po- x> xs XI. . 

1. Gender, in English Grammar, is a distinction in the form or termination of nouns, as expressive of the sex : thuf. 
Poet denotes a male writer of poetry, and we call the noun masculine gender. Poetess denotes a female writer of 
poetry, and we call the noun feminine gender.* So man denoting the male of the human species, is masculine gender, 
and looman denoting the other sex of the same, is feminine gender. Gender consists in sex. As there are but two 
sexes, consequently, whether grammatically, or physiologically considered, there can be but two genders — masculine 
and feminine. Hence nouns expressing persons or brutes, but having no form or termination indicating the sex, are of 
no gender. Consequently all nouns denoting things without sex, have no gender. Examples of the former class : 
Parent, friend, cousin; sheep, cat, turkey j of the latter class, — house, book, field, apple. 

2. Two of the pronouns have gender ; he of the masculine, and she of the feminine. The rest of the pronouns are 
without gender, having no distinction in form as expressive of the sex. The pronoun it has been called neuter gender, 



* Proper names of persons are included in this definition as masculine or feminine gender. Though they are of a different class from those In a list which 
follows, not admitting of being set ofif in pairs, yet they express, by their form, the sex. 

We might, hnmoronsly sppaking, with pom» aptnes*, contrast the prop«r nouns John and Mary, th«y being jo commonly ufsd for the male and female. 



12 



GENDEE OF THE NOUN. 



to carry out a formality in the artificial classification of four genders. But it is of nj gender, not generally denoting 
things with sex, and never expressing which. 

3. Rule. A personal term of no gender requires its pronoun to be of the masculine, unless the feminine is known by 
the presence of the person, or inferred from some word in the sentence expressive of that sex ; as. Every 'person should 
mind his own business. When we behold a frail delicate creature striving with her hands to support an aged mother 
and a sick brother, &c. In the last sentence the feminine gender is clearly inferred, therefore the pronoun is put so, 

4. Rule. But when a brute term is referred to of no gender, its pronoun should he the same, (or neuter gender as 
heretofore called), unless the sex is inferred from some expression of the sentence ; as. We saw a creature on a tree and 
knew not what it was. The ostrich leaves her offspring to the mercy of other brutes. From the word offspring in con- 
nection with the antecedent, we infer the feminine gender and therefore use it. 

5. We sometimes personate brutes and apply to them the personal pronouns he and she ; as. The ox knoweth his 
owner ; The horse threw his rider. When we refer to a noun denoting a species remarkable for boldness, strength, or 
generosity, the masculine gender is generally preferred ; as. The dog is remarkable for his sagacity. See also the pre- 
ceding examples. But to nouns denoting a species of the opposite qualities, the feminine gender is applied ; as. The 
ca^ delights to torment Aer prey, 

6. At the present period it is thought that this sort of figure has, Avith some, become quite too common. It is not 
every one who writes a paragraph, or a tale for a newspaper, or even writes a book, that has the taste and judgement 
requisite to know when thus to raise brutes up to the dignity of thinking human beings in the application of language. 

A LIST OF IVOUIVS OF GENDER. 



Masculine. 


Feminine. 


Ma-sculine. 


Feminine. 


Masculine. 


Feminine. 


Masculir 


Abbot, 


abbess. 


Dauphin, 


dauphiness. 


.Jew, 


Jewess. 


Priast, 


Actor, 


actress. 


Deacon, 


deaconess. 


King, 


queen. 


Prince, 


Administrator, 


administratrix. 


Duke, 


duchess. 


Lad, 


lass. 


Peer, 


Ambassador, 


ambassadress. 


Editor, 


editress. 


Lord, 


lady. 


Papa, 


Adulterer, 


adulteress, 


Earl, 


countess. 


Landgrave, 


landgravine. 


Son, 


Arbiter, 


arbitress. 


Elector, 


electress. 


Lion, 


lioness. 


Stag, 


Author, 


authoress. 


Emperor, 


empress. 


Male, 


female. 


Songster, 


Baron, 


baroness. 


Enchanter, 


enchantress. 


Man, 


woman. 


Sloven, 


Benefactor, 


benefactress. 


Executor, 


executrix. 


Master, 


mistress. 


Sorcerer, 


Bridegroom, 


bride. 


Father, 


mother. 


Master, 


miss. 


Sultan, 


Bachelor, 


maid. 


Friar or monk. 


nun. 


Marquis, 


marchioness. 




Beau, 


belle. 


Gander, 


goose. 


Margrave, 


margravine. 


Tailor, 


Boy, 


girl. 


Gentleman, 


lady. 


Mayor, 


mayoress. 


Testator, 


Brother, 


sister. 


Governor, 


governess. 


Milter, 


spawner. 


Tiger, 


Buck, 


doe. 


Hart, 


roe. 


Nephew, 


neice. 


Tutor, 


Caterer, 


cateress. 


Husband. 


wife. 


Negro, 


negress. 


Uncle, 


Chanter, 


chantress. 


Host, 


hostess. 


Patron, 


patroness. 


Viscount, 


Conductor, 


conductress. 


Heir, 


heiress. 


Protector, 


protectress. 


Votary, 


Count, 


countess. 


Hero, 


heroine. 


Poet, 


poetess. 


Widower, 


Czar, 


czarina. 


Hunter, 


huntress. 


Prior, 


prioress. 


Wizard, 


Drake, 


duck. 


Instructor, 


instructress. 


Prophet, 


prophetess. 





Feminine. 

priestess. 

princess. 

peeress. 

mamma. 

daughter. 

hind. 

songstress. 

slut. 

sorceress. 

sultaness 

or sultana, 
tailoress. 
testatrix, 
tigress, 
tutoress, 
amit. 

viscountess, 
votaress, 
widow, 
witch. 



The following nouns of the feminine gender have no masculine : Brunette, dowager, shrew, syren, virago. 

Although this work is rid of the needless and absurd perplexity of four genders,* yet the learner will find much imperfection and 
irregularity in our language in the expressing of the sex. 



* I have found scarcely an instance for twenty years past, in which I have consulted an unsophisticated literary man (and I have couversed with many oa 
the subject) who did not advocate the reckoning of but two genders in grammar. 



GENDER OF THE NOUN. 13 



T. Most nouns representing classes of brutes, reptiles, insects, &c., have no gender. The larger divisions of animals 
more frequently have terms distinguishing the sex, than the smaller divisions have, as that is more wanted ; thus, 
Milter and spawner express the male and female of the more familiar classes of fish, such as have fins and scales ; but 
this does not show y»diether it is the male or female of the class salmon, or mackerel, or trout, or of some other division 
included in the more general one. But if it is the male, we call it the milter, and if the female, we call it the spawfier. 

8. Some nouns used as general terms for both sexes, have gender when the name is contrasted with another term 
which is confined to the opposite sex; thus. Horse expressing a species of animal, is of no gender, but contrasted with 
?nare, which denotes the female only, it is masculine. So goose, representino- a class of birds, includes both sexes, but 
used in contrast with gander, which represents the male, it becomes feminine, fn the one case the masculine is the 
general term, in the other, the feminine is,' In some instances there is the name of the species and a,' iiotin of 
each gender to express the sex of that species ; as of deer, sheep, &c. ; the former having bi(ck, doe — and the latter, 
ram, ewe. But fashion has lately made the male of the unassuming sheep, unasked, imitate in name that of the stately 
deer. I know not whence this paxtiality of the word has arisen, unless it is because buck is sometimes used for a rakish 
male of the hurnan species.' 

9. In many cases we denote the sex by combining general terms of masculine and feminine gender, with the name of 
the species oi animals, or class of persons. Cock and hen express the male and female of a domestic fowl. They are 
also applied to the name of the species of birds generally, to denote the sex ; as, A cock partridge, a hc7i partridge T 

The nouhi male and female are of universal application to animals as expressive of the sex ; but by prior right, are 
more appropriately applicable to the human species. He and she among pronouns are words as general in their appli- 
cation to the sexes, as 7nale and female are among nouns. 

10. The human family has terms to express the sex as a race ; as, jnan, icoman. Yet in this case the masculine gender 
is often used as a general term including both sexes ; as, God made man upright ; Man exists under every known cli- 
mate. In these sentences both sexes are included. But in expressing a variety of portions of the human family, tho 
noun has no gender, as in examples previously given : Parent, child, cousin, servant, ancestor, sweetheart, love'\ &c. To 
such nouns, when it is necessary to be definite in expressing the sex, we prefix the general terms mMle and female. 
As the reader passes on under the head " Gender," he will be rather amused at some of the contrivances to'express the 
sex ; as, " Singing melodies to \\m lad f love.'''' Here there is the curious combination of the word love,* which certainly 
must be considered an agent, with lady the feminine gender and the object of love, in order to make definite the sex 
of lover. 

12. Here follows a short list of words, expressing the sexes by having other words prefixed to them of the masculine 
and feminine genders. 

Masculine. FemL'iiiie. Masculine. Feminine. 

A man-servant, A woman-servant. A cock-spaiTow, A hen-span'ow. 

A male-chikl, A female-child. A he-goat, A she-goat. 

Male-descendants, Female-descendants. ' A bull-calf, A heifei-calf. 

13. We are inclined to smile at the expressions m-:n-tailor, ?r.9;/ic/?z-to7or, which we .sometimes hear, instead of the 
proper words tailor and tailor ess ; yet such is the imperfection of our language,, that we have sometimes occasion to use 
a double gender; as. The male-heirs of that estate are disinherited, and most, of the female-heirs are dead. In the 
first example the masculine gender male is put with the masculine heir — -ia the other, the masculine and feminine are 
put together. 

14. The reader has thus far been led to suppose that in case the noun has gender, the masculine is to be used only 
when we refer to a male, and the feminine always wh^n we refer to a female. But this does not follow with all nouns 
of gender. There are several nouns of the masculine gender that are much used as general terms, including both 
sexes ; as, Poet,^ author, editor, executor, benefactor, protector, and one or two more. These are often applied to females 
instead of their feminines. 15. The ruler of.^a people is not necessarily a king, it may be a queen ; the teacher of a. 
school need not be a master, it may be a mistress : But an inheritor of an estate must necessarily be an /w/r, not 
heiress. As females often inherit estates, therefore they are heirs to that kind of property. Thus, in the sentence, 
They have found another heir to the estate, heir does not necessarily imply a male — it may mean cither. Mris. Mills 

11. * When love is personified \vc always ascribe to it the masciiliue gciiilcr; as. '■'Lave t!unlietii no evil ol' his nciglilru-." 
- 9 



U GENBEK OF THE NOUN, 



claims to be an heir to that property. We see that heir in the last sentence is properly applied to a female. The 
reader is here vexed to inquire what the use is of a feminine gender to such nouns, if it cannot be depended on and 
used. 1 would answer, that notwithstanding this general use of the masculine gender of these nouns, there are occasions 
in which their feminines are properly applied. To know when is a point I have been aiming at. It is first to be shown 
when the feminine gender should not be used, or rather, when the masculine gender must be applied to a female. 

16. When the person meant is the only one of both sexes in the class referred to, the mascviline gender is necessarily 
used ; as, Miss King is the only heir to that great estate — the meaning being that no other person whether male or 
female, has any part in it. The same meaning is to be regarded of poet in the folloAving sentence : Mrs. M. is the 

greatest poet in the county of P . The reason of this is clear. Heiress would only imply that there was no other 

female who had any part in the estate ; we should be left to suppose that there might be more or less male heirs. So 
if it were poetess it would not deny that there were male writers of poetry in the county as good, or better, than she. 
By the same rule a woman may properly be the author of a book, the editor of a paper, the protector of her orphan 
child, &c., because she is the only one of both sexes supposed in these several capacities. Take a further view of this : 
Which is to be executor of the estate ? the widow, or her son ? Is not the answer necessarily. The widow is to be 
executory The person who settles an estate is an executor. Although she is in one sense an executrix, she in this case 
becomes an executor. But if there is a man who performs a part of the duties of the office, and a female also, she is 
properly called an executrix in contradistinction to the male executor. 

There are cases requiring the masculine gender of these nouns, not so clear as the foregoing, which will be rendered 
plainer by an additional remark — an example of which has been given in the sentence Mrs. Mills, &c. 17. When we 
refer to any of these nouns used in the sense of general terms with no allusion to the sex, the masculine gender is 
required ; as, She that seeks to relieve the suJBferings of the downfallen is a benefactor of her race. Benefactor is alluded 
to as a general term and no reference is had to the sex. Benefactress would not tell all we mean ; — it would be only 
saying — is 2^, female doer of good of her race. We would not stint her praise thus, but we would express her as de- 
serving among all mankind — of both sexes. Further illustration of this distinction of the sex: Miss Gray is an 
honored poet who received a prize for good performance in the art. If we are comparing Miss Gray among females 
'only, it should he poetess; but if, as is intended, we wish to give her more praise, by comparing her with all writers of 
poetry, it should be poet. In the following, there is an additional reason for the masculine gender : Miss Gray is the 
honored poet who took the prize for the best specimen of the art. We not only wish to give her praise among both 
sexes of poets, but the best specimen of the art must mean, that she is the only one referred to among both sexes. See 
the remark under figure 16. I will now exhibit a few examples of the feminine gender of these nouns' having a place. 

18. It is necessary when the sexes are contrasted ; as, Mr. Mason is a poet, and his wife is a poetess. But observe 
the shade's difference which would require the masculine : But she is not much of a poet. In the last instance she is 
reckoned among both male and female poets, and thus viewed has only an ordinary rank. 

19. When the sex is alluded to, and the noun is not referred to with the general meaning, the feminine gender is 
required ; as, In the morning I thanked my kind benefactress for her watchful care through the night. In this instance 
an individual case and the sex only are referred to. But here, as before, a shade's difference in the turn of expression, 
carries us to the noun as a general term, and requires the masculine gender : In the morning she that had been my 
protector during the night, directed me on my way. In the last, the sex is not referred to, and she is the only one meant 
of both sexes. A direction a little different in complexion may assist the learner still more. 

20. The feminine gender is required when the noun is applied as an epithet to show the profession or title of the 
female; as, George Niles married a ;)oeto5 ; That lady is an acifress ; Miss Greenville is a rich* heiress ;\ Miss Collins 
the poetess lives in Dover. 

Those who study well the foregoing instruction and observe the examples in illustration, will be enabled, the author 
trusts, to discern when to use those double gendered nouns (if he may so call them) ; and they will recognize as they 
come to it, the fitness of applying in the sentence below, referred to by the f , both the feminine and masculine gender 
to a female, and sometimes to the same female and even in the same sentence. 



* In a strict sense, rich cannot be applied to heiress. To an heir the property is only in prospect, and a person is not called rich without property; and 
when one comes into possession of the estate he is no longer an heir but a possessor. As the expression is sanctioned by practice, the author has allowed 
himself to use it to prolong the sentence. 

\ By the customary use of the language a lady is not called an heiress, unless she is heir to a large estate. 



GENDER. — POSSESSIVE CASE. 16 



Although persons of extraordinary good taste and long experience in writing, may generally apply the gender of 
these nouns right, yet not many even of such can feel that satisfaction and certainty which they would to have perused 
the preceding rules. 

CoRBECTiox. 20, Woman here is contrasted with man, the term being taken in its most extensive sense. When the sexes are con- 
trasted the feminine gender should in all cases be apphed to a female. See false grammar under gender. 

The sweet songstre^ss has become an author. Author here is referred to in a general sense only. 



POSSESSIVE CASE. 

1. A noun denoting possession should generally have an apostrophe and an s annexed to it; thus, John's book. 
2. Bat when it would be difficult to pronounce an additional 5, or would occasion too much of the hissing sound, an 
apostrophe only should be used; as, Xerxes' army ; For emphasis' sake. 3. When ownership is really meant, we 
should be careful to give the word the possessive expression, even at the expense of ease in pronouncing ; thus, 
Thomas's cane; That shepherdess's song was sweet — -prononnced Thomas' -is, shepherdess' -is, Thomas' cane would 
seem too much like both words taken together as a proper name ; and shepherdess' song sounds as though was meant 
a kind of song pertaining to females generally of that order. 

4. The following nine examples taken from Webster, are presented as he would have them for possessive case : 
Horses', churches', plural; Miss's, tress's, highness's, peeress's, plexus's, Venus's, Sirius's, singular. To these let 
me add Hercules, beaux, Mathews, James, Ames, Charles, Davis, and Raselas. To the first three I would annex an 
apostrophe only ; to the others an apostrophe and an s. These will serve as a eomparatory guide in almost all the diffi- 
cult cas3s that will occur in English. 

5. In such very nice cases, however, as Faselas, Mathews^ and a few others, the collocation of the word may perhaps 
sometimes vary the choice. For a further remark, see figure 1 on the number of the noun. 

6. In cases like the following, the nouns should be used as adjectives, and not as nouns in the possessive case : State 
house, State prison. Barn floor — analogous to Toimi house, Parlor floor. Statesman office. 

7. In a variety of instances there seems to be no established guide which of these uses to make of the noun ; for 
example, we say, Bunker Hill monument, Faneuil Hall; and also, Smith's block, Jones's Corner. So we say. Goat 
skin, Whale oil, Beef tallow ; Hog's lard, Be?»,r's grease. Camel's hair. Elephant's teeth. 

8. The preposition of before the name of the possessor, has the same eftect in expressing ownership, as the noun has 
with the possessive form ; thus. That is the knife of John, denotes possession, the same as That is John's knife. But 
there is generally a preference in the two forms, the choice depending on what is to be expressed. Of the two methods, 
the latter is preferable in the example just given. But, In the name of the Commonwealth is preferable to In the Com- 
monwealth's name. The bill originated in the house of commons is dignified and appropriate ; but in the commons' house 
is far from being so- Sometimes there is but little if any choice in the two modes of expression ; as, He called at the 
President's house, or, lie called at the house of the President. 

9. Sometimes we have occasion for what may be called the double possessive — the preposition of before the name of 
the possessor, and the noun with the possessive form ; as, That is a sentiment of Mr. Wort's, the meaning of which is, 
that is one of Mr. Wort's sentiments ; or, that is a sentiment of Mr. Wort's sentiments. But it is evident that this 
form of expression should not be used unless possession is meant; as, A crown of gold; a mass of silver; an account 
of a storm. Here no possession is meant and we need no guide. And when possession is meant, if the sentence neither 
expresses nor implies the possession of more than one thing, only the single possessive should be used ; as, The crown 
of the king was stolen. Only one thing is supposed to be possessed here, as a king usually has but one crown, there- 
fore king is properly without an apostrophe and s. But when the sentence expresses or implies the possession of more 
than one of that which is mentioned, the double possessive should almost invariably be used ; as, A soldier of the 
king's was slain. Here it is implied that the king possessed soldiers, — it meaning a soldier of the king's soldiers; 
therefore king has an 5 and apostrophe. 

10. In the two following sentences the double possessive should not be used : That portrait of my friend does^ not 
resemble him ; The lady to whom we were introduced is a sister of Mrs. Strong. In the former sentence ownership is 
not meant, but merely a painting or likeness of the person. In the last sentence the supposition is, that the person 
who makes the remark does not know whether Mrs. S. has one sister only, or many sisters, — a plurality is not, as a 
matter in course, implied hero, therefore the single possessive is used. 



16 ON THE PKONOUK 



A Pronouu is a word usoJ iustead of a nouu to avoid the too frequent use of the sacie word. WJio and its yariation^ 
are relative jDronoim.s, unless referred to as mere words, ^^luch is generally a relative pronoun. T//oif is a relative 
pronounwhere the sense will allow li'/io or ic/wc/i to be substituted for it. 

Who is applied to persons, the Deity and the Savior, and w7«cA to things or brutes. That is applied to persons, and 
to things or brutes. But all terms implying persons, or the Deity, do not authorize the application of loho. 

When the usual terms for these subjects, as God, Lord, Almighty, Supreme Being, Jesus, Savior, and the like — man, 
woman, person, and the proper names of persons, are not used, there are several occasions in which we do not apply 
ivho to a word denoting persons. ' ' ' 

1. When a thing is personified or we refer to a term used figurative!}', impljnng Deity or a person, we use ivhich; as, 
That power ivhich binds together the universe ; Although the hand which offers it wears a ring, Src. ; Who finds a heart 
in which he can confide ; France which was in alliance with Sweden. 

2. When we refer toa collective noun meaning persons, conveying unity of idea, we generally use tchich; as. That 
faction which; He is on the committee which was appointed; The nation to irhich he belongs ; A party of ivhich you 

should be ashamed ; A generation ivhich has passed away ; A family which is broken up. Btit when a personal colle(5- 
tive noun conveys plurality of idea, we generally apply who ; as. The family whom we met on our way. 

3. Which is placed after a noun when it is referred to as denoting the character or qualification only, and not the 
person ; as,^ He as a good writer, ivhich (thing) is a desirable attainment. 

4. Sometimes when a word is literally used for a person or persons, but referred to merely as expressive of a number 
meant of them, which is properly applied ; as, The elephant has killed a third man within a month, which makes the 
tenth that he has killed within a year — meaning which number makes the tenth number of the men whom he has 
killed. A more striking example : If there be thirty pupils, which most likely there will be, the tuition will be $2. 

5. Sometimes it is diScult to make preference of who or which ; as. The number of substantial inhabitants with whom 
(or ivhich) some cities abound. But as we here refer to a term which literally means persons, and the meaning carries 
us to persons and nothing else, there can be no objection to whom. 

6. Wlien things arfd brutes are personified, they take pronouns that represent persons; as, Night, sable goddess, 
from her ebon throne ; The lion said to the ass who had been hunting with him. 

The word ichat is used variously. It is often used with reference to the occupation of another ; as, What is he ? 
a farmer ? 

7. Wliat is often improperly used for which, and in some instances by many of a good education ; as, What number, 
and tchat case is the noun ? It should be which number — which case. 

8. When we would point out one individual person or thing from two or more previously explained, referred to, or 
brought to view, which should be used and not what; as, Which book will you take ? The books are supposed to have 
been individually before the mind. So nvmher and case had previously been explained to the pupil, in course, or else it 
would not have been right to ask hiin the question ; hence the proprfety of ivhich. 9. But if the things have not been 
previously referred to, what is right ; as, What book is that? No particular books have been referred to of which we 
mean that is one. Further examples : The landlord of a hotel at the closing of an evening, passing a light to a traveler 
who had requested it for retiring. to rest, says, you will lodge in the second stoi'y ; but liis attention being called off 
at that moment by another gentleman, he has not named the room. The traveler with the light in his hand waiting, 
presently says, what room sliall 1 take, sir. He naturally and properly says what room, because he had previously 
known nothing of the rooms. But supposing the clerk disengaged then, and noticing the occasion, asks instead of the 
stranger. He would properly say, which room shall I give him, because he had the rOoms individually in view. Sup- 
pose further : The clerk introduces him to a spacious room (in Avhich it is seen at a glance that there are four beds) 
saying, you will lodge here. The stranger replies with the quesdon, ivhich bed shall I take. He properly says which 
now, because the things are before his mind. " ' ' 

^The antecedent of a relative pronoun after the superlative degree is sometimes understood ; as, This is the mildest 
winter that has been these many years. It will always prove the antecedent by its giving the sense put in place of 
the relative ; this winter has not been known these many years, therefore that does not refer to ivinter, but to winters. 
jandcrstood, as the meaning is, This is the mildest winter of the winters that have been known these many years. 



*?RONOIlNv,--ADJl:€TI V E. 17 



Afco after adjectives of ci-der, as, ,/5:/-5/, second, &c., the antocedent is often understood ; thus, The lightning struck 
Swan's house yesterday, Avhich is the fourth that has been injured by that means in two weeks. If we refer that to 
fourth used as a noun or to house understood, to which we might apply fourth as an adjective, it will be exactly equal 
to saying. Swan's house has been injured by lightning Avithiu two weeks, which would be nonsense. This fact is told 
us iu the" beginning. But it means, which is the fourth house of the houses that have been, fcc. 

I am aware that such ellipses have been entirely overlooked ; conscquenth^ the verb following the relative has been 
left singular, I cannot forbear noticing on this oocasion a double error which many authors have committed by over- 
looking this occasional ellipsis. It is iu criticising on the following sentence, exhibiting it as a model of a -certain kind 
of error which is often made, namely, using a plural pronoun with a singular ante"ced.ent : The wheel killed another 
man, who is the sixth that have lost their lives ])y these means. But this example is a decided failure of that object. 
They changed have into has, their into Ms, and lives into life, taking man to be the antecedent. From the illustration 
of the last preceding ellipsis it must appear clear that that refers to meji understood. "We ask, what sixth man? Why, 
the sixth man of tlie men that have la^t their livr.s, &c,, ^\\ must gay>. Therefore they altered three words that are 
rlglit into words that are wrong ; whilst they have left one Avord decidedly wrong untouched. Means has a singular 
meaning here, as the Avheel is evidently the instrument referred to, therefore this or that should be used instead of these. 
That is preferable here to this, as means is an absent subject ; though perhaps this may bo allowable here to sava 
repeating that in the last part of the sentence^. 

ABJECTIVE. 

An Adjective Is a word which expresses the kind, quality, number or circumstance of some person or thing. 
1. Each other, and One another. "VYe should use each ether when we refer to only two persons : The twins lov6 ehch 
^ther. 2. One another is to be applied to several persons : We should assist one another in trouble. 

3. Further tind farther. Farther is but little used now by literary peoi^le ; and by good scholars is very seldom 
applied except to distance, and as an adjective ; as. The distance is farther on the old road. Further is used as an 
adjective with a meaning like ?nore; as. What need we any further witnesses? They require further proof; and as an 
adverb with nearly the meaning of 7nore or longer used adverl)ially ; as, I will proceed no further ; A\^hen they had fur- 
ther threatcEed them ; That I be not further tedious unto you. And it is sometimes used with reference to distance a-s 
an adverb ; as. And the angel went further and stood in a narrow place ; But thou shalt com.e no further. 

4. This and its plural these, and that and its plural iho^e. This or its plural should be used when we refer to tho 
nearest or last mentioned person or thing, and that or its plural, Avhen we refer to the farther off or first mentioned, 

5v But these definitive adjectives are often u«ed when no contrast of objects is apparent — Avhen only one subject is 
brought to mind. In such a case it is evident that when a thing referred to is present in regard to time or place, this 
or its plural should be used ; as. To-day if ye Avill be wise, &c. — This you can call your time. This is a healthful 
city (meaning where Ave are). 

G. But when the thing is absent In regard to time or place, that or its plural should be used ; as, To-morrow you 
cannot claim — that is in the womb of futurity. But Avhen a subject is not thus plainly present or absent, it is many 
times nice to determine, Avithout long experience iu writing, Avhich of these adjectives to prefer. 7. Examples of tho 
preference of that, by high authorities : " Every thing proclaims the existence of a God^ that cannot be questioned." 
" I always maintained the right of every man to his opinion, however different that opinion might be to mine." '■'■Thai 
is the Avord— ^CT^jwy." The things referred to by f/iai^ in these three examples, a r^ Avhat maybe called, by way of 
distinction, absent subjects. In cases like them, those Avho make the best choice of language, Avould prefer that. 

8. Speakers and writers, hoAVCA'cr, often present things before us as present, and use this^ which in reality arc not so. 
It requires good taste and judgement to know wdien to take this liberty. 

"Wrou^f jjlacang; of Afijeclircs. 

9. Examples. A new pair of shoes ; a good piece of land. The shoes are new, not the fair ; the land is good, not the 
-piece. It should be, A pair of new shoes ; a piece of good land. 

When two or more adjectives come together belonging to one noun, most persons, without some definite instruction, 

2^ 



IS 



ON THE ADJECTIVE. 



would be liable, in many instances, to place them wrong ; as, A little sick duck ; A new yellow house. It should be, 
A sick little duck ; A yellow new house. 

10. Rule. Place the more general term or the adjective which expresses the more general quality of the individuals 
in the class referred to, next to the noun, and the adjective which is the more specific or less general in its application 
the farther off; as, A tall oak tree ; A lame young man. Oak is the general term applying to every individual of a 
large class of trees ; tall is the specific term, expressing a quality of only a small part of the oak trees. In the other 
sentence young is the general term and lame is the specific one ; therefore oak and young are placed next to the nouns, 
and tall and lame the farther off. ^ 

11. The speaker or writer will in all cases be able to distinguish the more general term from the specific, by consider- 
ing which of the adjectives will apply to the greater number of the persons or things of the kind referred to. Amono- 
ducks and houses in the first examples, there are more little ducks than sick ones, — more 7iew houses than yellow ones^ 
therefore little and new are properly placed next to the nouns. 

12. For a further example still, — suppose that a traveler turns from the way side and seats himself near our door 
step. AVe see that he is hlack, a quality that applies to all of a large and distinct class of the human race. He is old 
also. Old would be the more general term in most cases, but here it is the specific — only a small part of the race 
being old, but they are all black. Then it must stand. An old black man, not A black old man. But he is weary, which 
is still more specific. All old men are not weary. It now reads, A weary old black man. He is also hungry. As he 
might be weary several times before he would be hungry, hungry is therefore the more specific of the two. We now 
read the adjectives in their right order thus : jMy little daughter, shall we give the hungry and weary old black man a 
dinner ? and put a dime in his pocket to pay for a lodging when he shall not find persons kind enough to give him one. 
Young, old, black, are terms of a general character — sick, lame, unfortunate, hungry, weary, &c., are not so, but acci- 
dental or circumstantial. 13. But sometimes our meaning is such that we make the more general term of the one 
which is in itself the more specific ; thus, if a man owned several yellow houses and only one of them was new, we 
should say. He sold his 7iew yelloiv house. In this sense yellow applies to all the houses referred to, and new to only 
one of them. This point in the meaning must always be looked to. So Ave properly say, A young Boston lawyer. "We 
make Boston lawyers the general class here — not yowig lawyers. 

14. It is on this principle of arranging the adjectives, that we have a grammatical reason for preferring. First two 
verses ; First five settlers, &c., to Two first versss ; Five first settlers. It is clearly to be seen that two and five are the 
more general terms here, and first the specific. There may be several two verses in the hymn, but there is but one 
first two. Omit two verses of the hymn. "Which two? Ans. The frsi two. It may be objected that there are not 
always a second two — a second five of the things named. If there are not twice two, &c., of the things, we can make 
out a first two, or a last tv,'o, if there are but three. Count two in their order and we have the first two ; skip the 
first one and count, and we have the last two. Or we might more fitly say in a like case, Omit the last verse, — omit 
the first verse. 

15. But in regard to the placing of numerals, unless they are accompanied with first or last, euphony of expression 
generally requires an exception to this rule ; as, The two tall men ; The two handsomest ladies ; The two foUoiving years 
he likewise stood candidate. 



Good,* 

Bad, ill, or evil, 

Far, 

Little, 

Much, or many, 

Old, 



A.i1ji;c£ivcs compared irrcstilar. 

Fore, former 



better, best. 

worse, worst. 

further, or fai*tlier,t furthest, or farthest. Late, 

less, or le^er, j least. 

more, most. Near, 

older, or elder, II oldest, or eldest. 



later, 
nearer. 



foremost {in place.) 

first {in time or order.) 

latest {nf erring to time.) 

last {in order.) 

nearest, {referring iokplace.) 

next {in order.) 



* Well when an adverb is compared like s:ood. 

t See the uses oi further and Jarther in the fore part of the treatise on the adjective. Furthest is seldom called for. 

X Lesser is to be applied only under the guidance of good judgement and taste, and then only to things that are numbered. 

D When we compare the ages of persons (or of things personified) of the same familj^ or class, elder and eldest are properly used ; as, Ann ia the elder of 
the two. But when persons are not tJiU8 cla^aod, or if the conjunction than is used, oMer and oldpst ar« applied; as, BI«thu»elah waa the oldest manj 
'thojaaas.ia older than Joseph. 



VERB. — MOODS AND TENSES. 19 



THE VERB. 

1. A Verb Is a word which expresses action or being. Verbs are of three kinds, transitive, intransitive, and passive. 
A transitive verb has an object, and expresses action or influence which terminates on it. An intransitive verb denotes 
simply being or existence, or it denotes action which is limited to the subject. A passive verb denotes action received 
or endured by the person or thing denoted by the nominative. It is formed by preceding the elliptical participle of a 
transitive verb with the verb he through all its various changes of number, person, mood, and tense. To verbs belong 
mood, tense, number, and person. 

MOOD. 

2. Mood is the manner of representing action or being. There are five moods, called Indicative, Subjunctive, Poten- 
tial, Infinitive, and Imperative. The Indicative Mood simply indicates or declares a thing, or asks a question. The 
Subjunctive Mood expresses action or being in a doubtful or conditional manner. The Potential Mood declares the 
power, liberty, possibility, or necessity of action or being. The Infinitive Mood expresses action or being in a general 
and unlimited manner ; having no nominative, consequently neither number nor person. The Imperative ^lood com- 
mands, exhorts, or entreats. 

T E X S E . 

3. There are six tenses : .a present tense, an imperfect, a perfect, a pluperfect, a first future, and a second future. 

4. The Present Tense denotes present time. Hence the present tense form of the verb should be used when we ex- 
press action or being which takes place at the time we speak. It should also be used vv^hen we express customary 
actions, or when Ave express an agency that acted, does now act, and will still act so long as the present order of things 
exists ; as. They dine at one o'clock ; He ivrites with a gold pen ; When a tiger springs upon a traveler in some lonely 
place, he does only what his !Maker has taught him ; The sun rises in the east ; Virtue rewards her followers ; We 
build houses of wood, brick, and stone. 

5. We also use the present tense, when we refer to the completion of a thing, with no reference to the time when 
the action was done ; as, A house ?"5 raised on it, but it is not finished ; The factory is built of brick ; How straight 
that line is drawn; The book is printed very neatly. 6. The completion of the act which we may refer to, however, 
sometimes requires the imperfect tense ; as. The Academy icas not built when you were there, but the meeting-house 
was. If we referred to the building of them, the pluperfect tense should have been used ; but as we refer only to the 
buildings as being there, or not being there at the time alluded to, the imperfect is correct. Further examples : At 
that time the country was not settled ; Beautiful crystals, &c., were formed, &c. 

7. When we speak of the making of any thing that is old, allusion seems to be carried to the time when the action 
was done ; as. Those stockings (old) were knit of fine wool ; The old brig icas built of white oak. But of a vessel just 
built, we say. The new barque is built of live oak, and is copper bottomed. In some cases of this nature it is diJBicult 
to decide which tense to prefer ; as. This coat is (or was) faithfully made ; That razor is (or icas) made of excellent stuflT. 

8. The present tense should also be used when we express a thing which is always the same ; as, The philosopher 
told us that virtue is always amiable ; It was always my persuasion, that envy acquired by virtue is really glory, not envy. 

9. There are also various other uses of the present tense. It is used when we represent distinguished persons long 
since dead as speaking to us now ; as, Esop tells us, &c. ; Solomon says, &c. It is sometimes used in animating histor- 
ical narration, representing actions that are long past ; as. He enters the peaceful territory, takes an immense booty, &c. 
Following when, where, after, before, till, as soon as, the present tense is often preferred for its simplicity, to express the 
relative time of a future action as brought into present view ; as. When the stage arrives we shall hear the news ; Before 
he returns he will probably hear the news ; or at least, soon after he arrives. This use saves the repetition of an auxiliary. 
Verbs following those words sometimes take the termination of the compound future ; as, If I tarry till he comej the 
same as if made compound by prefixing shall. But usually the termination of the indicative present is given, as in the 
preceding examples. Good judgement and correct taste must decide which to prefer in such cases. 

10. The Imperfect Tense refers to past time, however distant. 

11. The Perfect Tense refers to past time and conveys an allusion to the present. 

12. The Pluperfect Tense denotes past time, but as prior to some other past time specified ; as. He had received the 
news before I arrived. 13. The pluperfect form should also be used when we denote a past action which took place 
prior to an act expressed by a vero denoting indefinite time, as customary actions, &c. ; thus, An ungrafted ivaa bears 



20 VERB. — MOODS AND TENSES. 



founder fruit than if it had been grafted. 14. There is one or more exceptions to the f rst remark and example ; thus, 
When there is either no space of time between the two past actions, one of which in order of time is prior to the 
other, — or, when one of the actions follows the other in quick succession ; as, He that was second auditor was pro- 
moted to a secretary ; Whom did she that ivas Sarah Blake marry? I s«z/' him just before he fell. He was second 
auditor till he was made a secretary ; she was Sarah Blake till the moment she married, — there is no space of time in 
these two cases between the one situation and the other. In the last sentence one action immediately followed the 
other, therefore both verb>s in the three examples should be in the same tense, 

15. The potential mood seems to disregard this rale of the pluperfect tense. When a verb in that mood denotes past 
time prior to that expressed by another verb of past time, it should be given in the imperfect tGnse ; as, I thought I 
should lose it before J reached home ) He said he should call on his friend hefote he relumed. A verb in the potential 
mood is often given in the pluperfect construction when it does not refer to time usually requiring that form ; as, They 
would have repented long ago. 

16. The First Future Tense simply denotes future time ; as, To-morrow will be Monday; You will go next week ; I 
shall see you on Thursday. 

17. The Second Future Tense denotes a future action which is begun prior to the time named or referred to for its 
completion — or, it refers to a future point of being which closes a space of time extending back of it ; as. The two 
houses will have performed their business when the king comes to prorogue them ; The Grand Canal will have paid for 
itself in the year iSGO ; When thou shall have subdued all the races of men, then thou wilt make war against rivers, 
forests, and wild beasts ; Next new year's day, I shall have been at school three 3'ears. In the first sentence it is evident 
that the performing of the business was begun quite before the time of finishing it, which is expressed by the part of 
the sentence, ivhen the king comes. In the second sentence, 1860 is the time Avhon the payment of the canal will be 
completed, but the payment of it was begun a long time prior to that. In the third sentence, Alexander who is alluded 
to in the action, had already been subduing nations, when the address was made, and when denotes the future time in 
which the subduing was to be completed. In the fourth sentence the verb refers to next new year's day, which closes a 
space of time extending back three years. 

18. In common colloquial use the perfect tense is often justified instead of the second future ; as. When 3-ou have read 
the piece, you will pass me the paper ; When we have sung another song, it will be 9 o'clock. But in the pulpit nearly 
the same expression would be better in the second future ; as, AVhen we shall have again su7ig a hymn. 

19. The tenses of the Infinitive Mood being two only, the present and perfect, are determined by a different meaning 
from what has been given in the others. 

The infinitive mood is always accompanied with some verb on which it depends more than on any other ; thus. She 
desires to learn; He says he expects to go to-morrow. To learn depends on desires, and to go depends on expects. The 
present tense of the infinitive should be used when it denotes action or being contemporary with, or subsequent to, the 
verb on which it depends. Learn refers to the same time that desires does, that is, it denotes time contemporary with 
cfesiVes, the verb on which it depends, — and /o ^0 refers to time subsequent to that of CcT/^ects, the verb on which it 
depends — therefore both infinitives should be in the present tense as they are. Thus both contemporary, and subse- 
quent time, require the present tense of the infinitive. 

20. But when the infinitive refers to time antecedent to the verb on which it depends, it should be in the perfect 
tense ; as. He is now supposed to have committed the deed. The committing the deed was before the supposing, or, in 
other words, to have committed denotes action antecedent to is supposed, the verb on which it depends, therefore the per- 
fect tense is used. Through want of a knowledge of this rule, we sometimes find the wrong tense of this mood used, 
even by experienced and able writers. 

Uses of the auxiharies Shall, Will, Should, Would, Could, and May. 

21. When simply futurity is meant and no other verb in connection, shall is used with the first person ^ and tvill with 
the second and third ; as, I shall not pass that way ; You ivill hear from him next mail ; The sun will rise to-morrow 
at 6 o'clock. 22. But in the subjunctive mood simple futurity is expressed by shall applied to the second and third 
person ; as, I will go if you shall require it ; If he shall succeed he will return in the fall. 

23. Shall and Will have various other uses besides expressing future time. In interrogative sentences they undergo 
a change in meaning ; thus, Shall I go? refers to the will of another ; and will you go, imports intention. Will m 



VERB. — USES OP AUXILIARIES, &c. 



21 



ihe %sfc person intimates resolution and promising ; besides necessarily embracing future time ; as, I Avill reward the 
good, and will punish the evil ; We will remember benefits and be grateful ; I will go in despite of the dangers. 

24. Shall in the second and third persons, promises, commands, or threatens ; as, Thou shalf, or you shall inherit tho 
land ; Ye shall do justice and love mercy ; They shall account for their misconduct ; You shall have no part in the mat- 
ter ; Thou shalt stay at home. 

25. He shall go, and shall he go, both imply will, expres.'jlpg, or referring to, a command. In the following sentence 
will in the third person denotes willingness or determination'; as, John says that ho will not go, or that he will go. 

Should, Would, Could, and May. 

26. Should is used to represent future time with reference to a past action which is future to it ; as, He said he 
should call there before he returned. Should is also used in reference to present time, in connection with would, to de- 
note contingence ; as, I should be glad if he would assist me. 

27. Would is used in reference to present time in connection with could, to denote willingness ; as, I woxdd go if I 
could. Woidd primarily denotes inclination of will, and should, obligation ; but they both vary their import, and are 
often used to express S;imple event. 

28. May and might express the possibility or liberty of doing a thing ; can and coidd, the power ; as, It may rain ; 
He may write or read ; He might have improved more than he has ; He can write much better no\y than he could last 
year. May sometimes .chiefly refers to future time ; as, I may at some future time go there. 



Exhlbitio7i of the verbs choose, hate, and be for mood, tense, number, and person. 

JUDICATIVE MOOB. 

The verb Choose. 

Present Tense. 

i is plural and 
Choose } first person 

( singular, 



r^i^ , (is second person 

(Jhoosest < ' 1 ^ 
( singular, 

Chooses* I is tl"rf person 
( Singular, 

Imperfect Tense. 

i is plural and 
Chose \ first and third 

( person singular, 
is second person 



Chosest 



( is second pe 
\ singulaj, 



Tbu^, 



Thus, 



Present Tense. 


AYe, ye or 




you, they, 
or I 


choose. 


Thou 


choosest. 


He, she, 
or it 


chooses.t 


Imperfect 


Tense. 


We, ve or 




you, they, 
I or ho 


chose. 



Thou 



chosest. 



In tbe grave style, chooseth. 



t Or chooseth, in the p-nve style. 



22 



EXHIBITION OF MOOT), TENSE, &c. 



Have chosen 

Hast chosen 
Has chosen 



Perfect Tense. 

( is plural and 
< first person 
( singular, 

!is second person 
singular, 
( is third person 
/ sinafular. 



Pluperfect Tense. 

i is plural and 
Had chosen < first and third 

( person singular, 

!is second person 
singular, 



Hadat chosen 



First Future Tense. 
Shall ( is plural and 

or choose < first and third 
will ( person singular, 

Shalt 

or choose 
wilt 



{' 



is second person 



singular, 



Second Future Tense. 



Shall or will 
have chosen 

Shalt or wilt 
have chosen 



is plural and 
first and third 
person singular, 
is second person 



Thus, 



Thus, 



Thus, 



Thus, 



Perfect Tense. 
( We, ye or 

•< you, they, have chosen. 

( or I 



singular, 



Thou 


^5^ chosen » 


He 


has chosen. 


Pluperfect 
We, ye or 
you, they, 
I or he 


Tense. 
had chosen. 


Thou 


hadst chosen. 


First Future Tense. 


We, ye or 

you, they, 

I or he 


shall 
or choose. 
will 


Thou 


Shalt 
or choose. 
wilt 


Second Futv 


ire Tense. 


We, ye or 

^ you, they, 

I or he 


shall or will 
have chosen. 


|Thou 


shalt or yrilt 
have chosen. 



The verb HATE. 



Have 



Hast 



Has 



Present Tense. 

is plural and 
first person 

singular, 
is second person 

singular. 
is third person 



111 

{ 



\ 



singular. 



Thus, 



Present Tense. 
We, ye or 
you, they, 
or I 



Thou 



He 



have. 



hast. 



has. 





EXHIBITION 


OF MOOD, TENSE, &c. 


Imperfect Tense. 

( is plural and 
Had < first and third 
( person singular. 


Thus, 


Imperfect Tense. 
( We, ye or 

<| you, they, had. 
1 I or he 


Hadst 


\ is second person 
\ singular, 




JThou hadst. 


Perfect Tense. 

i is plural and 
Have had < first person 
1 singular. 




Perfect Tense, 
i We, ye or . 

I you, they, have had. 
( or I 


Hast had 


( is second person 
( singular, 


Thus, 


1 Thou hast had. 


Has had 


is third person 
singular, 




j He has had. 


Pluperfect Tense. 

i is plural and 
Had had < first and third 
( person singular, 


Thus, 


Pluperfect Tense. 
i We, ye or 

I you, they, had had. 
1 I or he 


Hadst had 


( is second person 
( singular, 




j Thou hadst had. 



28 



The Terb BE. 

The verb he has ten forms, tiz. a?n, art, is, are; was, wast, were ; been, be, and wert. Am is 1st per. sing,; art is 2d per. sing.; 
is is 3d per, sing.; and are is plural, of the present tense, indicative mood. Was is 1st and 3d per. sing., for it is correct to say, / 
loas he was; wast is 2d per. sing.; and were is plural — of the imperfect tense, indicative mood. Be is present tense of the Sub- 
junctive, of the Potential, of the Infinitive, and of the Imperative. It is also first future tense with shall or will prefixed to it. Wert 
is Subjunctive form, imperfect tense, second person singular. This verb is further exhibited in connection with choose in the passive 
form. 

In a practical application of the imperative mood it is difficult to go wrong; and as the subjunctive form of the verb is the same as 
the indicative, except in the present tense,* those moods are not given place to in tliis work. 

* The verb be, however, takes some exceptions to this. 

POTENTIAIi MOOD. 



choose 



May, 

can or 

must 

Mayest t 

canst, or choose 

must 



Present Tense. 

is plural and 
first and third 
person singular, 



is second person 



singular, 



The verh Choose. 



Thus, 



1 



Present Tense. 


We, ye or 

you, they, 

I or he 


may, 
can or 
must 


Thou 


mayest, 
canst or 




7nust 



choose. 



choose. 



t See figure Si under the verb. 



24 



EXHIBITION OF MOOD, TENSE, &c 



Imperfect Tense. 
Might, ( is plurd and 

could, would choose < first arid third 
or should ( person singular 

Mightest,'' . 

couldst, icouldst choose •< 



or shouldst 

May, can 

or 
tnuRt have 
Mayest, canst 

or 
7nust have 



is second person 
singular, 



Perfect Tense. 

( is plural and 
chosen < first and third 

( person singulars 

, ( is second person 

chosen { . , ^ 
( singular, 



Might, 



Pluperfect Tense. 

, • r is pluVal and 
could, would I I first and third 

or should ( person singular, 

Mightest, 
couldst, wouldst 
or shouldst 



have 
chosen 



{' 



is second person 



singular, 



Thus, 



Thus, 



Thus, 



Imperfect Tense. 
We, ye or might, 
you, they, could, would 
I or he or should 

/ mightest, 

\. Thou couldst . wouldst 
^ or shouldst 



choosei 



choose. 



Perfect Tense. 



We, ye or 

you, they, 

I or he 

Thou 



may, can 

or chosen. 

must have 

mayest, canst 

or chosen. 

must have 



- , Pluperfect Tense. 

( We, ye or might, 



xyou 



they, 
I or he 



Thou 



could, would 
or should 
mightest 
couldst , wouldst 
or shouldst 



have 
chosen. 

have 
chosen. 



INFINITIVE MOOD. 



21ie verb Choose. 



The verb Haye. 



The verb Be. 



Present Tense. 
To choose. 

Participle. 

Present, Choosing. 

Perfect Tensd 
To have chosen^ 

Participle. 

Perfect, Having chosen. 



Present Tense. 
To have. 

Pai-ticiple. 

Present, Having. 

Perfect Tense. 
To have had. 

Participle. 

Perfect, Having had. 



Present Tense. 
To be. 

Participle. 

Present, Being. 

Perfect Tensc: 
To have been. 

Participle. 

Perfect, Having been. 



PASSIVE VERB. A transitive verb is put in the passive form by prefixing to its elliptical participle the various forms of the verb 
6e, for the moods, tenses, numbers, and persons; so that in conjugating ^passive verb, we are giving, as will be seen, a complete con- 
jugation of the verb he, for the same mood, tense, &c. 



* See figure 34 under the verb. 



EXHIBITION OF MOOD, TENSE. &c. 



25 



The verb Choose i7i the passive form. 

IXDICATIVE MOOD. 



Am cliosen 
Art cliosen 
Is choseu 
Are chosen 



Present Tense. 

is first person 

singular, 
is second person 

singular, 
is third person 

singular, 



Imperfect 
Was chosen 

Wast chosen 

Were chosen 



is plural. 

Tense. 

is first and third 
person singular, 
is second person 
singular, 

is plural, 



Have 
been 

Hast 
been 
Has 
been 



Had 
been 

Hadst 
been 



Shall or 
loill be 

Shalt or 
wilt be 
3 



chosen 

chosen 
chosen 



Perfect Tense. 

is plural and 
first person 
singular, 
is second person 
singular, 
\ is third person 
\ singular, 

Pluperfect Tense. 

C is plural and 
chosen < first and third 
( person singular, 
f is second person 
( singula!', 

First Future Tense. 

C is plural and 
chosen < first and third 
( person singular, 

Sis second person 
singular, 



chosen 



chosen 



Thus, 



Thus, 



Thus, 



Thus, 



Thus, 



I 

j Thou 



He 



Present Tense. 

am choseu. 

art chosen. 

is chosen. 

are chosen. 



^ "We, yo or 
I you, or they 



Imperfect Tense. 
5 I or he was chosen. 

5 Thou ivast chosen. 

I We, ye or „,,,., .^^^.^ 
( you, or they 



Perfect Tense. 

'^^^■yf"'^ have 
you, they, ^ 

or I 

hast 

been 

JHe '^^ 



I Thou 



been 



Pluperfect Tense. 

"^^'yX"' had 

you, they 

I or he 



Thou 



been 

hadst 
been 



chosen. 

chosen, 
chosen. 

chosen, 
chosen. 



First Future Tense. 
(We, ye or ^^^^ ^^ 
j you, they, ^^^^ j^ 
( I or be 

{Thou '^"" 



tviU be 



chosen. 



chosen. 



2«i 



EXHIBITION OF MO 01), TENSE, &a. 



Shall or will 
have been 

Shalt or loilt 
have been 



Second Future Tense. 
chosen 



Second Future Tense. 



cccsen 



( is plural and 
< first and third 
( person singular, 
is second person 



Thus, 



We, ye or 

you, they, 

I or he 

Thou 



shall or will 
have been 

shall or wilt 
have been 



chosen, 
chosen. 



Present Tense. 
To be chosen. 

Participle. 

Freseiit, Being chosen. 



INI^INITIVE MCSOD. 



Perfect Tense. 
To have been chosen. 

Participle. 

Perfect, Having been chosen. 



Do 



Doest or dost'^' 
Does 



The verb Do in the present and imperfect tenses of the indicative mood. 
Present Tense. Imperfect Tense. 

i is plural and 
Di'l < first and third 

( person singular. 

' is second person 



( is plural and 
-< first person 
( singular, 
is second person 
singular. 



Didst 



!' 



is third persmi 



singular. 



singular. 



0^ CLASSIHa THE PARTICIPLES. 

1. The 2)articiple has bv*en exhibited iu the grammars in three forms, as regarding time; thus, Pre^. Loving, per. 
loved, com. per. having loved, of the transitive form ; and Pres. Being loved, per. loved, co/n. per. having been loved, of 
the passive form. But it will be found on examination that there are but two distinct participles — that the middlife 
form, which (to give it a name that may be applied to it on all occasions) may be called the third form of the verb, if 
merely elliptical, and is always either included in one of the other participles, or is a part of a verb ; thus. Yon house 
erected on the rising ground, &c. ; Raised to greatness he employed his power. Erected and raised are passive parti- 
ciples ; being is necessarily understood. Convicted of high treason he was committed to the tower. Twenty years thus 
passed will store my mind with images. Convicted ZiXidi passed are perfect passive participles, having been being under- 
stood to each of them. It will be observed that the participle when elliptical, is almost always of the passive form; 
though sometimes met with of the intransitive meaning ; as. All things now retired to rest, mind us of like repose. 
Retired is a perfect intransitive participle, elliptical, having being understood to it. 

2. Sometimes the third form of the verb when thus alone, is not a participle of either kind ; as, I would have the 
books hound in moroccc?. Here it does not mean being hound, nor having been hound, but, I would have them to he hound 
in morocco. Bound is therefore here a passive verb, in the infinitive mood, elliptical. This use seldom occurs. It can 
be known from the real participle by its referring to future time. Although verhum sapientice satis, still I will present a 
further view of the inconsistency of reckoning three participles with regard to time. Grammars have presented the 
same word as a passive perfect participle, which they have presented as a transitive perfect participle. How these two 
could both be alike, whilst the other two transitive and passive were so different, was long a strange thing to me, and 



* DoMt whcii a principal verb, and dost when an auxiliary. Tlie second person singular imperfect of this verb omits e in the termination, varying from 
tfee aaalo^^r of ^te'JSt all other vOTbs. 



ON CLASSING THE PARTICIPLES 



27 



I doubt not it has been so to many a learner, ^^ho has thought at all on the subject. Tlio question Avhat difference of 
time from the others, that middle participle expressed, presented another cloud to the mind of the learner. I have been 
showing that the middle or perfect participle, as given in grammars, when met with in composition, is either a verb, or 
ia reality one of the other participles ; I will now show that we cannot make sense in its application without so con- 
sidering it. Take for an example, bcBn, the third form of the verb he, called by the grammars perfect participle, — and 
I have no objection to this, but must add, that it is all the perfect participle the verb he has. We can properly say, He 
being there at the time of the accident, — or, he Slaving been there previously ; but to say, He hcen there yesterday — he 
been there before, is sucii an absurdity of language as we never knew of. This example, although it affords a bolder 
illustration than that of verbs generally, only discloses what is true of this participle of all other verbs. 

3, Then as I found it agreeable to truth and philosophy, and as such an exhibition is more clear and simple for tlie 
mind of the learner, I have given only two participles in this work, present and perfect. In composition or real lan- 
guage we know just what to call the third form of the verb, — whether elliptical present joass. participle, elliptical 
perfect pass, participle, — or a verb, as it is when have or he is prefixed to it. It is generally when found alone a parti- 
ciple. In j)arsing, it should be disposed of which way best gives the sense. 

4. In fair Circassia, where to love inclined 

Eaek swain was blest, for every maid was kind. 

In this couplet, inclined is properly rendered a passive verb or a verb in the passive form, by supplying ane of the forms 
of the verb be and a relative pronoun ; thus, Where each swain, that icas inclined to love, was blest. Neither being 
inclined, nor having been inclined would answer here, for that would imply that each swain in Circassia was inclined to 
love, which is evidently not the meaning. But thus to render into a passive verb elliptical participles generally, would 
greatly weaken language by rendering it too verbose. Participles give a force and density to expression which cannot 
be had without them. And more than this, without them we should frequently have to express more than is meant. 
5. In some instances there is very little or no preference to be made in rendering the third form of the verb : "Relative 
pronouns relate to some noun or personal pronoun called the antecedent." This may be rendered being called, a present 
passive participle ; or which is called, a passive verb, and either give the meaning well. 

6. Bat standing in the third column of a catalogue of irregular verbs, this third form is no more a perfect participle 
than it is a present passive participle ; I have therefore marked it elliptical participle. The pupil, however, in conju- 
gating, need only say participle. 

CATALOGUE OF lEEEGULAE TERES. 

Those that are not found here may be considered as more properly belonging to the class of regular verbs. 

Ptcgular verbs are tliose whose imperfect tense and elliptical participle end in ed by annexing d or ed to the first form* of Hie verb, 
or by changing 1/ in the termination into id; thus, J3ibi;e, moved, raoved ; learn, learned, learned; marry, married, married. 
Those that vary from this are called irregular. 

Much care has been taken to present this list according to the best usage of the present day. 

Pres. 
Abide, 
Am or be. 
Arise, 
Awake, 
Bear, to bring 

forth, 
'Bsir, to carry. 
Beat, 
Begin, 
Bend, 
Bereave, 
Beseech, 



Imp. 


Ell. Part. 


Pres. 


Imp. 


Ell. Part. 


Pres. 


Imp. 


Ell. Part. 


abode, 


abode. 


Bid, 


bid or bade, 


bidden or bid. 


. Cast, 


cast. 


cast. 


was. 


been. 


Bind, 


bound. 


bound. 


Catch, a. 


caught. 


caught. 


arose. 


arisen. 


Bite, 


bit, 


bitten or bit. 


Chide, 


chid. 


chidden or chid. 


awoke, R.f 


awaked. 


Bleed, 


blecl, 


bled. 


Choose, 


chose. 


chosen. 






Blow, A. 


blevf, 


blown. 


Cleave, to 






bare or bore. 


born or borne. 


Break, 


broke. 


broken. 


split. 


cleft or clove, 


cleft or cloven. 


bore. 


borne. 


Breed, 


bred. 


bred. 


Cleave, to stick 




beat. 


beaten or beat. 


, Bring, 


brought, 


brought. 


or adhere. 


cleaved. 


cleaved. 


began. 


begun. 


Build, 


built or 




Cling, 


clung, 


clung. 


beat, R, 


bent, R. 




builded, 


built. 


Clothe, 


clothed. 


clothed or clad. 


bereft, k. 


bereft, r. 


Burst, 


burst, 


burst. 


Come, 


came. 


come. 


besought. 


besought. 


Buy, 


bought, 


bought. 


Cost, 


cost. 


cost. 



* First form of the verb is the vei-h as vra finU it, without variation for nu-nbsr or person. "We might call the imperfect tense th3 second form of the 
.verb. And third form instead of ell- par'., would alwajs be tme as well as shorter, t R- placed to a Acrb sliows tjiat that form sometime* ends in ed 



28 



CATALOGUE OF IRREGULAR VERBS. 



Pres. 


Imp. 


Ell. Part. 


Pres. 


Imp. 


EH. Part. 


Pres. 


Imp. 


Ell. Part. 


Crow, 


crew, E. 


crowed. 


Hold, 


held, 


held, d. 


Shine, 


shone, F. 


shone. 


Creep, 


crept, 


crept. 


Hurt, 


hurt. 


hurt. 


Show, G. 


showed. 


shown or 


Cut, 


cut, 


cut. 


Keep, 


kept. 


kept. 






showed, 


Dare, 






Knit, D. 


knitj R. 


knit, R. 


Shoe, 


shod. 


shod. 


to venture, 


durst. 


dared-. 


Know, 


knew. 


known* 


Shoot, 


shot. 


shot. 


Dare, 






i.ade> 


laded, 


laden. 


Shrink, 


shrunk. 


shrunk. 


to challenge 


, dared. 


dared. 


Lay, 


laid. 


laid. 


Shred, 


shred. 


shred. 


Deal, 


dealt, R-. 


dealt, B. 


Lead, 


led. 


led. 


Shut, 


shut. 


shut-. 


Pig, 


dug, 


dug. 


Leave, 


left. 


left. 


Sing, 


sung or sang, 


, sung. 


Bo, 


did, 


done-. 


Lend, 


lentj 


lent. 


Sink, 


sunk or sank. 


, sunk. 


Draw, 


drew. 


drawn* 


Let, 


let, 


let. 


Sit, 


sat. 


sat. 


Drive, 


drove. 


driven. 


Lie, to rest) e 


■ lay, 


lain. 


Slay, 


slew. 


slain. 


Drink, 


drank. 


drunk, b. 


Load, 


loaded, 


loaded or 


Sleep, 


slept. 


slept. 


DweU, 


dwelt, K. 


dwelt, R. 






laden. 


Slide, 


slid. 


slidden or 


Eat, 


ate or eat. 


eaten. 


Lose,/. 


lost. 


lost. 






slid. 


Fall, c. 


fell. 


fallen. 


Make, 


made. 


made. 


Sling, 


slung, 


slung. 


Feed, 


fed. 


fed. 


Meet, 


met. 


met. 


Slink, 


slunk. 


slunk. 


Feel, 


felt. 


felt. 


Mow, 


mowed. 


mown, R. 


Slit, 


slit, R. 


slit, R. 


Fight, 


fought, 


fought. 


Mean, 


meant, 


meant. - 


Smite, 


smote, 


smitten. 


Find, 


found. 


found. 


Pay, g. 


paid. 


paid. 


Sow, h. 


sowed. 


sown. 


Flee, 


fled. 


fled. 


Put, 


putj 


put. 


Speak, 


spoke or 




Fling, 


flung. 


flung. 


Read, 


read. 


read. 




spake, H-. 


spoken. 


Fly, 


flew. 


flown. 


Rend, 


rent. 


rent. 


Speed, 


sped. 


sped. 


Forget, 


forgot. 


forgotten or 


Rid, 


rid, 


rid. 


Spend, 


spent, 


spent. 






forgot. 


Ride, 


rode, 


rode or ridden. 


Spill, 


spilt, 


spilt, R. 


Forsake, 


forsook. 


forsaken. 


Ring, 


rung or rang 


, rung. 


Spin, 


spun, 


spun. 


Freeze, 


froze, 


frozen. 


Rise, 


rose, 


risen. 


Spit, 


spit or spat. 


spit or spitten. 


Get, 


got. 


got. 


Rive, 


rived, 


riven. 


Split, 


split. 


split. 


Gild, 


gilt, R. 


gilt, R. 


Run, 


ran, 


run. 


Spring, 


sprung or 




Gird, 


girt, K. 


girt, R. 


Saw, 


sawed. 


sawn, R. 




sprang. 


sprung. 


Give, 


gave. 


given. 


Say, 


said. 


said. 


Stand, 


stood. 


stood. 


Go, 


went, 


gone. 


See, 


saw. 


seen. 


Steal, 


stole, 


stolen. ^ 


Gi^ave, 


graved. 


graven, B. 


Seek, 


sought. 


sought. 


Stick, 


stuck. 


stuck. 


Grind, 


ground. 


ground. 


Sell, 


sold. 


sold. 


Sting, 


stung, 


stung. 


Grow, 


grew. 


grown. 


Send, 


sent. 


sent. 


Stride. 


strode or strid, stridden or 


Have, 


had, 


had. 


Set, . 


set, 


set. 






strid. 


Hang, C. 


hung or 


hung or 


Shake, 


sh6ok. 


shaken. 


Strike, 


struck. 


struck or 




hanged. 


hanged. 


Shape, 


shaped, 


shapen, R. 






stricken. 


Hear, 


heard, 


heard. 


Shave, 


shaved. 


shaven, E. 


String, 


strung, 


strung. 


Hew, 


hewed, 


hewn, R. 


Shear, 


sheared. 


shorn, r. 


Strive, 


strove. 


striven. 


Hide, 


hid. 


hidden or hid. 


Shed, 


shed. 


shed. 









*i We might as well mark teach as being sometimes glv^en regular as to mark catch as such. None but illiterate persons use those verbs regular. 

b. The former association of the word drunk, has in a great measure, discarded the colloquial use of it, and substituted the imperfect for it; thus, I 
have drank my tea. But in dignified and sentimental composition, drunk is still used by the highest authority in this country and in England; as, He has 
drunk the bitter cup to its dregs. 

c. The verb fell, to cut down or make prostrate, for which fall is very improperly used by a large portion of our people, is a regular verb. 

d. Holden is nearly obsolete unless used for bound ; as, He is not holden by the instrument. 

e. Lie, to speak falsely, is a regular verb. 

f. The s in loose when a verb, is very often, though wrongly, pronounced like 2. 

ff. Plead and quit being more strictly regular verbs, are not put in the catalogue. In colloquial and common place use, however, they are gives irrcgu-- 
lar, especially qtiit ; as, They quit work early; Jamea plead earnestly to go. 





imp. 


CATALOGUE 


OF ihrkgular vere 


\^, kc. 


Imp. 




Prcil. 


Ell. Part. 


Prts. 


//n7. Bll. Part. 


Pre.^. 


Ell. Part. 


Stvow or 


strewed or 


strown, 


Teach, 


taught, tauglit. 


Wax, 


waxed. 


waxed or 


strew, 


strewal, 


stroAved or 


Tear, 


tore, torn. 






waxen. 






strewed. 


Tell, 


told, told. 


Wear, 


wore, 


worn. 


Sweaf, 


swore or 




Think, 


thought, _ thought. 


Weave, 


wove. 


woven. 




sware, 


sworn. 


Thrive, 


thrived or thrived or 


Weep, 


wept, i. 


wept. 


Sweat, 


sweat, 


sweat, R. 




throve, thriven. 


Win, 


won, 


won. 


Swell, 


swelled. 


swollen, I. 


Throw, 


threw, thrown. 


Wind, 


wound. 


wound. 


^wim. 


swum or 




Thrust, 


thruHt, thrust. 


Work, K. 


wrought or 


Avrought or 




swam, 


swum. 


Tread, 


trod, trodden or 




worked. 


worketl. 


Swing, 


swung, 


swung. 




trod. 


Wring, ' 


wrung, n. 


wrung, EL 


Take, 


took. 


taken. 






Write, 


wrote, 


written. 



The two forms of certain verbs io be used in different senses, 

A. The verb blow, though generally irregular^ forms its imperfect in ed in the Eieaning io taint meat ; as, The steak was left ixi tbe 
pantry and the flies blowed it. Still the participle in the same sense is irregular when applied as an adjective; as, Fly-blown cheese. 
Also, To bio Av upon — to make s^aZe, the verb is regular^ as. Peaches were so plentiful that the Philadelphians blowed upon them. 
But the last use may be considered somewhat low. 

B. Graven should be the participle or third form of this verb where its use associates solemnity; as, Let the names of three pei'- 
sons be engraven on her tomb, who never mom-ned. It is also fitly used in moral and highly sentimental discourse; thus. It is graven 
tipon tlie tablets of their hearts; The ministration of death engraven in stones. Otherwise graved is used; as. Her name was engraved 
on the ring. The same remark applies to the compounds engraven and engraved, as to the simples graven and graved. 

C. The imperfect and ell. part, of this verb should be regular when it means to take away life ; as. The pirate was lianged. lu 
jiearly all other meanings, hung should be the Avord. 

D: The verb knit, when it means to cleave together, has knitted in the imperfect and ell. part. ; as. His bones were knitted to- 
gether. But, to manufacture clothing, it is given irregular. 

E. The larger part of literary usage makes shaven the participle of the verb shave when applied to the beard.; otherwise shaved 
is used. 

F. When a dazzling or an intense light is meant, whether figuratively or literally, we should use shinei-; as, A light shined in the 
prison; God hath shined in our hearts; When his candle shined upon my head, Shined should be used also when to glisten is meant; 
as. His buttons shined bright. But when the light is mild or tiint, shone is used; as, The sua shone upon the Avater; The day shone 
not for a third part of it. On this principle we may nearly ahvays, if not quite, apply shone to the moon. Still practice does not 
seem to have made the uses of the two forms of this verb so definite and certain as those of the others here given. 

G. Shew, shewed, shewn, are nearly obsolete; and if sometimes Avritten th^y should generally be pronounced like the words in the 
Catalogue. 

H. Spake is in good use for the imperfect tense, in religious or elevated composition; as, "He spake the word and all their frame." 
But spoke is the word for general use. 

I. Swollen is used from this verb when an adjective only is meant, or a participle applied to matter; as. He has a swollen knee; 
The streams being swollen by the late rains. In all other meanings swelled should be used; as, They have swelled notes to the sky. 

K. When either manufacturing is meant, or the verb work expresses the producing or bringing forth something denoted by an 
tibstract noun, the imperfect and participle of this verb should be wrought ; as, Jane wrought an elegant veil; A mighty change has 
been wrought. 

L. But when simply laboring is meant, or action done to something already produced, we use worked ; as. He worked in the 
mines; ^Yiq worked the butter with a machine; An o\ev worked brain; The horses w^ere cruelly uo/7fe.'/. The objects of the action 
here are ah'eady produced. The following seems to belong to tliis practice, though not distinctly recognized under either head : He 
worked his way to fame. 



h. The regular verb sew^ to stitch, is pronounced like sotv, to sow grain, in the present and imperfsct tenses, an.i that is one arju'.iijct for coatir.uloff 
the latter irregular. 

i. Pronounce pt distinctly in this verb — also in crept, kept, slept. 



80 VEB.B CONTINUED. — PARTICTFLR, 



FURTHER REMARKS BELONGING TO THE VERB. 

29. Tho verba dare and need. Dare when intransitive lias no variation in the imperfect tense ; thus, Thou durst, he 
durst. Both dare and need when intransitive have no variation in the present tense ; as, He need not expect it ; He dare 
not go. The plural use of these verbs with a singular nominative of the third person is now sanctioned by the best 
authority, wherever the English language is used. Exceptions. When these verbs are transitive, they are subject to 
the Rvile for agreement in number, &c. ; as, He dares him to the combat ; He needs information. When these verbs are 
very emphatic they have the usual terminations of the present tense ; as, Who dares dispute his awful sway : And 
when also it is most proper that the prefix of the infinitive following them should be supplied ; as, He dares to do right. 

The prefix To forming the infinitive mood. 

30. A verb in the infinitive mood should generally have the prefix to. 

Exceptions. Verbs following hid, dare, feel, hear, let, make, need, see, &c., are generally used without the prefix to in 
the infinitive mood. 

31. Exceptions to the last. The compound tenses of these verbs, however, are generally followed by the infinitive with 
the usual prefix ; as. You have dared to throw more than a suspicion upon mine ; He will not dare to attack his adversary. 
Also daro, and need when single, if used with an objective case, are generally followed l)y the infinitive with the prefix 
to ; as, Dare him to dine with you ; He needs a friend to accompany him. 

Annexed termination of verbs. 
Euphony of the language must be regarded in determining whether the person or number requires st, or est, — s, or 
es, to be annexed to tho verb. 

32. Most of the auxiliaries, if not all of them, do where an auxiliary, and (except he and have) all verbs ending in e, 
receive .s^ only for second person singular. Do where a principal verb, and all ver;)s ending in a consonant or in w or 
y, (y baing changed into i when preceded by a consonant, in nearly all cases of adding the terminations,) receive es for 
second person singular, 

33. \erbs terminating in o, s, z, x, or y, receive es for third person singular. Nearly all others receive only s. This 
is meant for only those moods and teases in which the verb takes an additional termination. 

34. Most grammarians of the present day give may and might with the addition of st only. There is rather a stiffness 
in this contraction, especially with may, and we are inclined half to pronounce another syllable. Mayest would be 
analogous with payest, layest, &c. It may be further observed that est is the termination given this auxiliary in the 
Bible language ; it is also that given it by our late venerable lexicographer, Doctor Webster. In dignified and weighty 
composition we shall find that this form of the auxiliary is adopted by writers of true taste. Nearly, or quite, the 
same, may be observed of might. 

CoRUECTiox. Have arisen. It means all mankind from Adam, or from the eai'liest birth of those now living to the present 
moment — therefore referring to past time and conveying allusion to the present, which requires the pei'fect tense. 8. Produces is 
correct. See errors in the Tenses. 

PAETICIPLS. 

1. A Participle is a word derived from a verb, and denotes action or being similar to the verb. But it has several 
distinct features from the verb. A real and complete participle is different in its form or construction ; has no variation 
for mood, number, or person, and has no nominative case. It has two forms to express a difference of time, to 
which are given the names present and perjecl. 2. The present participle denotes present time, or time present with 
regard to some other past action or event ; as. Choosing, or heing chosen. The perfect participle refers to past time ; 
as, Having chosen, or having heen chosen. Passive participles are often partly understood. See preceding remarks 
about participles being sometimes elliptical. 

3. Participles in their nature are transitive, intransitive, and passive, as the verbs are from which they are derived. 

4. If the time is now passing, it is evident that the present participle should be used ; as, Knowimr the case as I do, 
I must be alloAA-ed myself to judge. 5. The present participle is also to bo used in reference to a past action when it is 



P A R T I C I P L E . ~ A D V K R B . 31 



present with regard to some other past action or event; as, The rain pouring in torrents, -we sought shelter in a tliicket ; 
Excuse Jane for being absent yesterday; lie Icing out of business, accepted an unla^Yful onployment; The king dying, 
his son became heir to the throne ; lie found a rude boy stealing apples. C. But when we refer to an action that is 
prior to some past action or event, or prior to the present time, we should use the perfect participle ; as, Ilaring fin- 
ished his work, he submitted it ; Having been convicted of high treason, he was committed to the tower. Sometimes it 
is of nice discrimination, whether the present, or the perfect, participle should be used ; as, War being ended the army 
was disbanded ; The general being slain the army was routed. If the prior action continues to the time referred to in 
the subsequent one, the present participle must be used. In the second and fifth sentences, the rain continued till they 
sought shelter ; the son became heir to the throne the moment the king died. But in the following two, although very 
nice distinctions, we should prefer the perfect participle, as given : The sun having risen, it became very warm ; The 
light infantry having joined the main body, the English retreated to Boston. 

^ ABYEEB. 

An Adverb is a part of speech generally used to qualify the sense of verbs, participles, adjectives, and adverbs.- 
Many adverbs are form^'d by annexing ly to an adjective ; as, harsh, harshly ; correct, correctly. 

1. Agreeable to the definition, when we would express the qualification of the sense of a verb, participle, adjective,. 
or adverb, we should use an adverb. 

2. But when the quality of a subject is meant, the w'ord should be an adjective. 

3. Illiterate people are much inclined to use an adjective improperly for an adverb; as. She dresses neat ; He walk* 
slow. The adverbs neatly and slowly are required, because the manner of dressing and walking is meant. 

4. But eiucated persons, having an eye to this improper use of the adjective, in endeavoring to avoid it, have gone 
into the opposite error, and in various instances, they use an adverb where the meaning requires an adjective ; as, ]Mix 
it with ten grains of finely pulverized aloes. Place this sentence in the manner following, and the improper use of the 
adverb will appear plain — Three grains of aloes pulveri/.ed fine. The state of the aloes is meant, and not the manner 
of reducing it to a powder. Arising from this caution of literary people against an error of the uneducated, we some- 
times witness the adverb used even contrary to good taste ; as in the following instance : Some of the simplest English 
words he spells ludicrously incorrectly. Good taste alone requires the adjective incorrect. 

5- We often witness an improper use of adverbs like that in the following examples: I called and paid the bill, 
agreeably to his request ; A firiely woven cloth ; He takes likenesses very correctly. It does not mean the manner of 
calling and paying the bill, but that the act of calling, &c., is agreeable — I called and paid the bill, which is agreeable 
to his request. So it means a fine cloth, correct likenesses. 

G. Take some simpler examples affording a more striking illustration : Knit the stockings loose ; Sift the meal fine ; 
Boil the apples soft ; Bake the biscuit hard. Good taste and common sense constrain us to use adjectives here ; yet 
these examples afford no truer instances of the adjective meaning, than those previously examined, — but they are a 
bolder illustration. I know not that we refer to manner at all in any of these examples. The stockings are produced 
loose, the meal is made fine hj sifting, the apples are made soft hj boiling, the biscuit are made hard by baking. The 
quality which the thing has after the action is gone through with, is w'hat is meant. 7. Further examples of this nice 
clistinction between an adjective and adverb : You have draw^n your characters imperfect; You have written your lines 
straight, Viovf beautiful you make your letters; lie cut the vest too .*?Aor^. I suppose it will readily be admitted tha,t 
the words in these examples should be adjectives as they are ; and if so, should they not be adjectives in the folh)wing : 
vSeth wrote that a bad ; He wrote the h splendid; You wrote that letter incorrect ; 1 wrote that word incorrect ; Spell it 
right, my good pupil ; Thomas spelled hi^ word wrong. Do w^e not mean a bad a, a splendid h, an incorrect letter, an 
incorrect word? We have no reference to the holding of the pen, the manner of proceeding with it, or to the quickness 
or slowness of the action. In the last six examples, especially in the last two, if our science sustains adjectives equally 
as well as it does adverbs — even if no better, need w^e ask w^hich shall bo our practice in such cases? The adjective is 
shorter, neater, and in better taste than the adverb. 

An adjective in such cases will not only be agreeable to the popular use, but it is in accordance with tlie greater part 
of literary practice. (See the note at the close of tJiis article.) 



82 ADVEJIB.—1>1^E POSITION. 



8. "Adjectives often belong to sentences, or whole propositions : Antiochus acted the part of a vile and most detesiahh 
person, agreeable to what hath been aforementioned of him. And contrary to that which in these cases commonly hap- 
pens, the conquerors adopted the opinions aiid manners of the conquered. Writers and critics, misapprehending the true 
^construction of these and similar sentences, have supposed the attributes to belong to the verb, denoting the manner of 
action. But a little attention to the sense of such passages will be sufficient to detect the mistake. For instance, in 
the example from Enfield, the attribute contrary cannot qualify the verb adopted ; for the conquerors did not adopt the 
•opinions of the conquered in a manner contrary to what commonly happens — the manner of the act is not the thing 
affirmed, nor does it come into consideration. The sense is this, the fVict that the conquerors adopted the opinions of the 
conquered, was contrary to what usually happens in like cases. The attribute belongs to the whole sentence or proposi- 
tion. The game expUination is applicable to every similar sentence." 

" Let us write 5/ojf) and ej^aci^. We may properly substitute i'/oji'/y here for 5/t>iy, as describing only the manner of 
writing ; but exactly cannot be substituted for exact; for this word is intended to denote the effect of writing in the cor- 
rectness of what is written."— Dr. Webster. 

Note. A few months aftef writing the foregoing article on the Adverb, I was encouraged to find th^ our very distinguished Amsrican philologist had 
given the same views on the use of the Adjective as myself had huuibly conceived. But as my examT)ie3 are more familiar, and illustration? more simple 
than his, and therefore better suited to the various minds of those who may peruse this work, I have inserted her>.' njtliiag of Br. W'ebster's except the 
•two i^aragraphs on this page. 

PEEPOSITIOH, 

A Preposition is a part of speech Avhich serves to connect Avords and show the relation between them. These little 
"words, insignificant in form, are of indispensable importance in language. To know how to apply them, will be the 
object of consideration under this head. The shade's difference in the meaning that requires a variation in the prepo- 
sition is in many instances very nice ; thus, " Gillot will put another man's name on his pens and sell them cheaper 
than he will those having his own name to them." Name to them suits the possession which is really meant here, 
better than name on them ; but in the first instance on is exactly suited to the sense. 

1. When the object of a preposition expresses an agent that is irresistible, dignified, or powerful, by should accom- 
pany it. 2. But when the agent is resistible, weak, or contemptible, at or with should be used. With is also applied 
when a thing is brought to view as an instrument. Examples : AYarmed by the sun ; AYounded by a musket ball ; The 
horse was terrified at the sight of an elephant ; Annoyed \cith flies — Infested v)ith rats ; It was wrought xvith a needle ; 
He walks ryzVA a staff. The sun is very powerful, — musket ball, irresistible, therefore Z;?/ is used. The sight of an 
elephant is in some measure resistible ; all animals would not be terrified at it. Although rats are sometimes almost 
irresistible, they are contemptible creatures — flies are still more so ; and staff and needle are the instruments with 
which the action is done ; therefore at and with are used. 3. When the doer of the action joins in company with others 
connected with it, with should be the choice. 

4. It is sometimes with much nicety that we can distinguish whether location is meant, or belonging — whetlier to 
prefer in or of ; as, " Great Britain, the most powerful nation of the world, was defied by that declaration ;" Minot is 
the largest town in Maine. [ think the meaning in the two preceding sentences is rather that of location than belong- 
ing, especially of the last ; and if so, in would be preferable in both sentences. 5. When place is referred to, in is 
rightly applied, but when belonging or possession is most in view, of should be used ; as. People in Italy breathe a 
wholesome air. Location is intended here — people of any part of the world when in Italy breathe, &c. If only the 
people belonging to Italy were meant, the would have been used. In the following belonging is meant : The people of 
New England are justly proud of their free schools ; Every apartment of my house is taken up ; Every timber of that 
ship is sound. 

6. We are disappointed of a thing when we have expected it, and do not obtain it ; and disappointed in a thing when 
we have obtained it, and find it does not answer our expectations. 

7. Among generally implies a plurality of things ; it should therefore be used only before adjectives and nouns that 
convey plurality of idea. Instead of saying. The same instinct is found among every hind of birds, it should be in 
every hnd. Between should not be used when we refer to more than two persons or things. 



PREPOBTTION. CTtlTICAL USES OP IT. 83 

8. Different senses and relations should be expressed by different prepositions, although in connection with the same 
verb. We properly say, Converse ivith a person, on a subject, in a house. 

Uses of the prepositions At and Ix before nouns of place, as given almost universally in the grammars^ 

9. " The preposition at is generally used after the verb be ; as, I have been at London ; lie will be nl Paris ; T was ai 
the place appointed. We likewise say, He touched, or arrived at any place. 10. The preposition in is set before coun- 
tries, cities, and large towns ; as. He lives in France, i?i London, in Birmingham. 11. But before villages, single 
houses, and cities which are in distant countries, ai is used ; as, lie lives at Hackney ; We dwell at Montpelier ; lie 
resides at Canton (in China)." 

^ There is an apparent inconsistency in some of the foregoing remarks, to the learner ; he also wishes to see why a 
city's being in a distant country requires at before it. The reason of the hist will be -made to appear. Exceptions to 
nearly all these rules, and to some of them various exceptions, Aviil be shown. 

Philosophical distinctions in the nse of At and Ix before nouns of place^ 

12. In the first place, let us take the position that in,\n this sense, implies contained, enclosed, within the place 
named ; as, /#the box, in the cage, in tfe garden, means contained in, or being within the limits of the thing or place : 
Whilst at does not necessarily embrace this idea, though it does not exclude it ; as, A.t the store, at the house — whicli 
may mean near or about the store or the house, or it may mean within it. 

13. Hence we should not use in unless enclosure is meant, and even where this may be fairly inferred, we need not use 
in unless ^pfclosare presents itself to the mind. By observing this definition of the two words, we shall find the correct 
application of them before nouns of place, to be easy and natural. Thus we shall see that we many times use in before 
small villages and single houses ; at sometimes before large towns and cities in the country where we live, — and some- 
times in before cities that are in distant countries. 

14. On looking into this subject we shall perceive that a place's being at a distance, or near, has much to do about 
presenting containment to the mind, or not so, and thus giving a preferen<33 to in or at. When we say, I saw him at 
his house; She resides at the village, the places are away from us; perhaps not far off, but at a distance clear away. 
But supposing the places are present, we should naturally and properly say. He is not in the house ; She is now in the 
village. Further illustrations : A gentleman says to a son at the ftirthest border of the farm, Where is your father? 
The son properly answers^ He is at the house. But if he should have made the inquiry at the door of his dvrclling, the 
son appearing would have said, He is in the house. "We see that the fitness of at, which is so clear in the one case, 
and tJae fitness of in in the other, depends on the foregoing principles. 

-15. Cities and large towns, even quite a distance from us, if they are in our own country, present themselves as 
containers on account of their size, if the thing or action is contained or is within their enclosure, and we properly use 
in before the names of them. 16. But when a city is an immense distance off, as in the East Indies, in China, in 
Japan, containment is lost in the idea — the mind is carried to the place only a« a point, and we properly use at ; as. 
He resides at Canton. But in some instances even in this case, containment is strongly marked and we properly use 
in; as, A man transacts business m New York and m Canton ; The houses m Pekin have no windows fronting their 
neighbors. 17. Nor is i7i always to be used before cities and large towns that are in our own country ; as. An earth- 
quake at Boston ; A great storm at New York ; A brilliant meteor was seen at Baltimore. The earthquake and storm 
could not be said to be contained in those places. Nor was the meteor seen exclusively in Baltimore, but tr.ere, about 
there, and in other places in that vicinity. 18. When a thing only joins a place, or is on one side of it forming a part 
of its border, m cannot be used ; as. The Penobscot bridge at Bangor ; The Navy Yard at Charlestown. 19. When the 
thino- we speak of is very gigantic in size, or grand and dignified in character, as a great monument or immense build- 
ing, or a large body ef people, distinguished for intelligence and respectability — to give dignity to the subject we use 
at. In such a case the idea of containment sinks from our view ; as. The National Assemblyman' Washington ; The 
Bunker-hill Monument at Boston. 20. Bnt even in this case, a different turn given to the idea Avould require in; as. Is 
the Bunker-hill Monument in Boston, or iii Charlestown ? Thus, if all the other particulars ari> the same, it will be 
perceived that a different shade of thought additional, may either convey containment to the mind, or leave it out of 
view ; as. Where is the ex-senator Evans now-a-days? he is at Washington. Enclosure is not in view here. Washing- 
ton marks the place where he is and tells all our question seeks. But in the sentence, Mr. Torrey is in Washington 
and in prison, we see the fitness of in. Enclosure directly comes up to the mind. 



34 PREPOSITION. CRITICAL USES OF IT. 



21. The occurrence of blrtbs and deaths seems always to require in before the name of the city or town, "because the 
^ct is limited to a definite spot ; unless a mere point of place is named. An example follows in illustration: In the 
year 1833, I saw, written on a humble board in a graveyard in New York, the following brief sketch of a deceased fel- 
low mortal : " Here lies the body of aged 36 years. Born m Amsterdam, Holland ; died in New York." 

Further uses of At. 22. At is also used when only a specified point or part of a town, city, or place is referred to ; 
■as, He resides at the bridge ; at the forks of the road ; His school is held at the North End. On this principle it is 
that uses similar to the following are justified: At the top — at the bottom, of a page; At the purple daivn of day. 
Onh^ a part of the thing named is referred to. 

Other V.9.CS of In considered in distinction from Oa\ 

23. On in common use is often given improperly for in. Indeed, so general is this in a few instances, that 
with Americans it might be called almost a national error. Though our very highest grade of scholars have seldom 
made it. 

24. LVs general office is to denote place. When on comes nearest to the pro\^ce of m'5 general meaning, it signifies 
foundation, — surface on Avhich we tread or stand. Dust in the eye, is in universal use, not on the eye. We properly 
say. He lives in that street — in that island ; a walk in the common — not on. Location is meant in these cases, — not 
foundation, &c. To better reconcile in to the unaccustomed ear in these uses, let us bring to mind that street 
includes a certain extent back from the path or walk, on each side. Because neither are the houses, &c., nor does a 
person live either in or on a street with the meaning only of the space in which we walk. He lives in Isl^boro, all 
would pronounce correct. Islesboro is a long island in Penobscot bay ; why not then proper to say, He lives in that 
island? In the common is analogous to ?7i the garden, m the park. So we properly say, A fly m the window, — in 
every page ; iji the map of England. 

25. After the verb be, in meanings like those which follow, nt should be us3d : James is at work in the machine-sho]3 ; 
Susan is at school ; I have been at meeting to-day. But such is the power of custom that when the verb he is used in 
<;onnection with the idea of getting to a place, being there, and returning from it, we have heard some persons of a 
good education, seriously argue in favor of to ; as, Have you been to town to-day? But let us suit the preposition to 
some one of these meanings ; it now with he suits none of them. Is not the being at the place the main idea, and 
which necessarily involves both the others? hence at or in should be the preposition ; as, I have been at the village this 
morning ; Nathan has been in Boston to-day. But if going there is the more prominent idea, we should use, go, travel, 
or journey. The nature of the relation which to shows is such, that it is seldom, if ever, admissible after the verb he 
before a noun of place. 

26. When motion is denoted from one place to another, or into some enclosure or vessel, or from one position into 
some other that is different, into should be used ; as. The brig sailed int& the harbor ; They went into a cave ; Put this 
change into fX\Q drawer; They went down into the water. 27. But there is a nice distinction from these^examples, in 
which in is in best taste ; as. Put the apples in dry sand for preservation. 

^28. When the changing of one thing into another is meant, m^fo is used ; as, Iron is converted mi!o steel ; A cater- 
pillar turns into a butterfly. 

29. Besides the foregoing uses of prepositions, there are numerous shades of thought constantly occurring which 
require a difiference in the preposition. You must talk to \\\^, intimates admonition ; but You must talk (or speak) 
roith him, denotes a reciprocal chat. 

30. We say. The little girl will be company /or her grandmother, if only the company of the one is a favor or 
wanted; but if the favor of company is reciprocal, we say, She will be company ivitli her sister. 

31. The difference between "My business confines me "in the city, and — my business confines me to the city," if we 
admit any, must be this ; the latter meaning, so that I hnoio nothing of country matters, — whilst the former has refer- 
ence to his physical bounds — so that I cannot go abroad. 

32. In a few cases it is difficult to determine which of two prepositions should have the preference, and custom has 
not settled on a choic3. We say. Expert at a thing, and expert in a thing; A lake abounding in fish, or abounding with 
fish ; Free of care, or, free from care. In such cases the easy flow and perspicuity of the language should be chiefly 
regarded. 

33. Blegance requires that we do not use propositions in conjunction with those verbs that include in themselves 



rPvEPOSlTION.— COKJCNCTION, jjo- 

all the meaning given by both verb and preposition ; as, Accept him ; Admit him ; Approve it ; Attain it, &e. These 
are more elegant than, Accept of it, &c. 

34. AVe should generally not use two different prepositions in connection with the same oliject, but give each a sep- 
arate object ; as, He went into and through the house, should be, He went into the house, and through it. 

CoKRECTiox. 5. Of the bible. In the bible would show the place, but it would not express that it belongs to the bible. From tho 
bible would show that it belongs to the bible, but that its place was elsewhere. But of the bible expresses, as strong as language can- 
make it, that it belongs to the bible, and imijlies that it is in it. See errors in the use of prepositions. 

GOKJUBIGTIOF. 

A Conjunction is a part of speech that serves to connect words, phrases or adjuncts, simple sentences and comnound,. 
paragraphs and chapters. 

As certain corresponding conjunctions are given in all the principal grammars, such will not be given place to here, 
(or, the list of such will not be necessary here.) 

1. Such usually requires fl.s after it ; but in the sentence, "We should sufficiently weigh the objects of our hopes, 
whether they be such as we may reasonably expect from them what they promise," as should be that. 

2. There are frequent occasions in which or and nor may be used wdth nearly equal propriety : The king, whoso 
character was not sufficiently vigorous, nor decisive, assented to the measure. In this sentence, or would perhaps 
have been better ; but in general, 7ior seems to repeat the negation in the former part of the sentence, and therefore 
gives emphasis to the expression. 

3. We should guard against the error of using /or improperly for as; thus. They were tried for spies, they were 
condemned for spies, they wxre handed for spies. As should be used here instead of /or. 

4. But in the following example for is right : The captives were sold for slaves. There will be seen to be this differ- 
ence between the two cases ; in the former example they were tried, &c., as being already spies, but in the latter, the 
captives' are not sold as being slaves already, but to be slaves in future — to be made slaves of. 

5. An infinitive following a clause, or two closely connected clauses, should have as prefixed to it, and such or so, and 
not that, in the preceding clause. Such and as are generally required together in a sentence. The following are im- 
proper uses of conjunctions : I wish I could do that justice to his memory to oblige the painters, &c, ; If he were truly 
that scarecrow as he is noAV commonly painted; In the order as they lie in his preface ; The duke had not behaved with 
that propriety as he ought to have done. Corrected — »S'Mc/t justice as to oblige, &c. ; Such a scarecrow as, &c. ; In such 
order as they lie, or, in the order m ivhich they lie ; loith ivhich he ought, &c. 

6. After such, so, and as, as is generally preferred for a relative pronoun to who, ivhich or that ; therefore the follow- 
ing is incorrect : Such sharp replies thac cost him his life. Better, as cost him, &c. 

7. The comparative degree almost always requires than to follow it ; as, Jane writes better than Mary. In the 
following also hut should be than : To trust in him is no more but to acknowledge his power. 

8. Other also requires than in the sense of the following : This is no other but the gate of paradise. Put than in- 
stead of but. 

9. So preceding an adjective requires as before the infir^plve directly following it. 

10. Or in the last clause of a sentence, generally requires either supplied in the former clause of it. 

11. The meaning sometimes requires whether to precede or ; as, We are generally pleased with benefits ivhether from 
friend or foe. 

12. Nor requires neither to precede it, and not the adverb not. 

13. The adjective same requires that to follow it. 

14. When the following clause is the object of the preceding verb,* that, and not as, should precede it ; as, I hear 
that peace is restored. When the preceding sentence is negative, the error of using as is very common : I do not kno\Y 
as I shall go ; I do not know as he will come ; She does not see as she can stay. As should be that in these sentences. 



* Philosophically considei'ed a verb often governs a part of a seutcucs as its objeit. But it answers all the practical objects of parsing to call a verb 
Iransftive only when it governs the case of a noun or pronoun. 



8G CONJUNCTION.— INTERJECTION. — CAPITALS. 

15. Ill a compound sentence containing three clauses or simple sentences, (the third of which is in most cases partly- 
understood, and often entirely,) if or and not, or or only, precede the third, ivhether, and not if, must precede the second 
clause ; as. Ask John if he shall stop over night ; Ask him if he shall go to Augusta, or Gardiner. Most of what is 
implied in the first sentence is — or shall not stop over night ; in the next — or shall go to Gardiner. It should there- 
fore be — whether he shall stop over night, — ivhether he shall go, &c. 

16. But and that should not be used together in a sentence as conjunctions ; as, I do not doubt but that he did it for 
the best. But should be omitted here. Sometimes in avoiding this use of but, we have to use the negative not in the 
following clause to give the intended sense ; as, There was nothing but that he could do. should be, There was nothing 
Ihat (or v/hich) he could not do. 

IMTEEJECTIOIJ. 

An Interjection is a word used to express passion or emotion, usually that which is violent or sudden. 

Interjections may be classed in several sorts according to the different passions which they express. Those which 
intimate earnestness or grief, are 0/ Oh! ah! alas! Such as are expressive of contempt are pish! tush! Those of 
wonder, heigh! really! strange! Of calling, here! ho! soho! Of aversion or disgust, f oh! fie! away! Of a call of 
the attention, lo! behold! hark! Of requesting silence, hush! hist! Of salutation, welcome! hail! Besides these well 
established ones, there are others frequent in the mouths of the multitude. 

Sometimes verbs, nouns, and a noun with an adjective or verb, are uttered by way of exclamation, in a detached 
manner, and have the nature of interjections ; as. Bless me! Gracious heavens! All hail ! 

O is used to express wishing, joy, gladness, exclamation, or a direct address to a person. Oh is written to express 
the emotion of pain, sorrow, or surprise. 

Interjections generally require the objective case of a pronoun of the first person after them ; as. Ah! me; but the 
nominative of the second or third ; as. Oh! thou. 

USES OF CAPITAL LETTERS. 

Capitals are used in the foUovv'ing situations : 

1. At the beginning of every principal word in the titles of books, chapters, &c. ; as, Johnson's Dictionary of the 
English Language ; RoUin's Ancient History. 

2. The first word of every book, chapter, note, or any other piece of writing. 

3. The beginning of the first word after a period ; and if the two sentences are totally independent, after a note of 
interrogation or exclamation. But if a number of interrogative or exclamatory sentences are thrown into one general 
group ; or, if the construction of the latter depends on the former, all of them except the first may begin with small 
letters; as, How long, ye simple ones, will ye love simplicity? and the scorners delight in their scorning ? and fools 
hate knowledge 1 Alas ! how different ! yet how like the s^j^e ! 

4. The first word of a quotation, introduced after a colon ot semicolon, or when it is in a direct form ; as, " Always 
remember this maxim, 'Know thyself.' " But when a quotation is brought in obliquely after a comma, a capital is 
unnecessary ; as, Solomon observes, that " pride goes before destruction." The first word of an example may also very 
properly begin with a capital ; as, Temptation proves our virtue. 

5. The pronoun I, and the interjection 0, must always be capitals ; as, I write ; Hear, O earth. 

6. At the beginning of every line in poetry. 

7. All names, epithets, or qualities of our Creator, are always begun, if not wholly written in capitals ; as, God, 
Lord, Supreme Being, Almighty, Most High, Divine Providence. The word heaven must always begin with a capital 
when used as the name of the King of heaven ; as. May Heaven prosper you. But when it is used as the name of the 
abode of the blessed, it may begin with a small letter, except at the beginning of a sentence ; as, The angels of heaven. 
The Lord of heaven and earth. 

8. All proper names, of whatever description , must begin with capitals ; of persons, heathen gods and goddesses, 



USE!6 or CAPITAL LllTTERS. tj 



brutes- the planctri,* tlio fiscd^stars and constellations, countries, kingdoms, states, cities, toAvns, islands, mountains, 
rivers, seas, oceans, ships, &c. ; as, Benjamin Franklin, Sir Isaac Newton, the Alleghany Mountains, the Ohio River, 
Lake Superior, the Red Sea, the Frigate Guerriero. Also all adjectives derived from proper names ; as. The Newtonian 
system ; Grecian, Roman, American, Italian, &c. 

9. All titles of honor, professions and callings of men, particularly when an address is made, ought to begin with 
capitals; as, President, Governor, General, Judge, Esquire, Mr., &c. Also all qualities used as titles of men; as 
Honorable, Reverend, &c. _ ^ 

10. Capitals are always usod to begin the names of all courtf^, societies, and public bodies of men ; as. Congress, the 
General Assembly, the Supremo Judicial Court, the Court of Common P!eas, the Humane Society, the Corporation, Sec. 

11. The immc3 of all religious sects and denominations, are begun with capitals; as, Congrcgatienalists, Baptists, 
Friends, &c. ^ - - 

12. Capitals are always used to begin the names of months, and the days of the week ; as, January, &c., Monday, &c. 
Also all public days ; as, a Public Thanksgiving, a Solemn Fast, &c^ 

13. The names of all articles of commerce, when entered in merchants' books, advertisements, &c., should begin with 
capitals ; as. Linen, Silk, Rice, Sugar, Tea, &c. Also all sums of money specified in notes, bonds, &c.; as, Ten Dollars 
and Seventy-five Cents. 

14. Yery emphatical words are frequently begun, and sometimes wholly written in capitals. 

To these directions a few other remarks may be added in regard to preferring capitals or small letters. 

Two or more common nouns are sometimes used to express an individual and l.'eeomc a proper noun ; as. The National 
Library, Owl's Head Point, The Cottage House — meaning a particular tavern. In such uses each word should commence 
with a capital. 

When a thing. is personined the name of it, should sometimes be commenced with a capital ; as, Solitude, now give 
me rest. Bat in the following instance, Plumed conceit himself surveying, conceit is begun with a small letter. Probablo 
the reason is that the personilication is not^so bold._ 

A common noun, v/hen a proper noun is in apposition with it, should seldom begin with a capital ; as. He sailed in 
the brig Rover ; The town of Union in the county of Lincoln. Nor does a common noun usually commence Avith a capital 
wdien connected, with an adjective vdiich properly commences with a capital ; as, A drummer in the French guards. 

But when a common noun make's a part of a complex proper name, it should commence with a capital ; as, The barge 
Queen Victoria ; Tlie ship Emerald Isle v/as stranded on the beach. Queen and isle are usually common nouns, but as 
they make a part of the complex proper nouns, they should begin Avith capitals. 

Complex proper names of persons or places most have each part commence with a capital, and a space between thera 
of about the size of one of the small letters; as, North Salem ; Roslin Castle. But if the whole name is put in small 
capitals, the two words are neatly connected with a hyphen ; as, nortii-streilt. But when the whole is put in large 
capitals, it is in better taste, whether printed, or in paint, to have a space of almost the size of one of the letters between 
the two words, and no hyphen ; as, NEW HAVEN ;^ BOOK STORE. 

This rule for writing complex or compound nouns in two separate Avords, is hardly ever excepted in proper nouns, yot 
in common nouns it is not CA^cn a general guide. Wo write Post Office^ 'postmaster, class leader, classmate ; school house, 
schoolmaster ; and sometimes we join the tAvo nouns Avith a hyphen. The best usage and good judgement must direct us 
in this aa well as in other cases where there is no gener£il ri^o. 

EULES FOE ETYMOLOCIIOAL SPELLIICa. 

RuLS 1. The folloAving kinds of Avords ending in y preceded by a single consonant, namely — nouns are Avrltten in the 
plural, — A'erbs written in the second and third person singular, and in the imperfect tense and elliptical participle — 
and adjectives in the comparative and superlatiA-e degrees, by changing y into i ; as spy, spicst, spies ; carry, ^ carries/, 
carries or carryeih, — marry, having vuirricd , happy, happier, happiest. But y, preceded by a vowel, in auch instanoos 
as the foregoing, is not changed. 



4 



S8 EULES FOR ETV MO LOaiCAL SPELLING. 

Rule 2. The simple present participle is fornicd of verLs ending in a single e, (the verl) he, and three otiiers Iiereafter 
to be named, being the only exceptions,) by dropping tbe.tf and adding ing ; of verbs ending in ie, by changing that 




^st 

consonant, as j;'cm, or the accent is not on the last syllable, (as 5w^er,) the consonant is not doubled; also when the 
final consonant is immediately preceded by a consonant; as Toil, toiling ; fed, feeling ; offer, qjfering ; warn, warning. 

Besides in the verb be, the e is retained in dye, singe, twinge; in the iirst of the three, to distinguish the participle 
from that of die to expire ; in the next, to distinguish its participle from that of sing ; and in the last, to prolong the 
syllable and soften the sound of g. 

Most of the verbs ending in /, however, are allowed by general usage to double the I on assuming another syllable, 
tliougb the accent is not on the last syllable ; as, travel, travelling, traveller. But by some of our standard lexicographers, 
as, Webster, Perry, the I is not doubled in such cases, and their mode is more or less fav .red by bishop Lowth, Ash, 
Walker, and some others. 

It is evident that the consonants c, h, x, when final of verbs, are never doubkd on assuming another syllable. 

The same directions are to be observed of the terminating consonant, and the same exceptions, in the imperfect tense, 
and elliptical participle, as in the present participle. 

Rule 3. Monosyllables ending with/, /, or 5, preceded by a single vowel, double th© final consonant, as, staff, mill, 
pass, &e. The only exceptions are of, if, as, is, has, ivas, yes, his, this, us, and thus. But monosyllables ending with 
any consonant but those three, and preceded by a single vowel, never double the final consonant, excepting add, ebb, butt, 
egg, odd, err, inn, bunn, purr and buzz. 

Rule 4. In the orthography of derivative words, the order of their priniitives is generally kept ; as, from stationer 
we spell stationery, not stationary. 

LESSONS IM FALSE SYMTAX. 

To call into exercise the judgment of the pupil still more, there are a few instances in course of the whole lessen?, in which the sentence 
is correct. This is shown at the close of the instructionJo which the lesson refers in the preceding part of the book. And sometimes 
a hard sentence is corrected there. 

To make these Exei'cises the most interesting and useful, the pupil can put all the different figures in a lesson on a bit •f paper ,- and 
go back to that subject in the preceding part of the book, and study well the instruction referred to. Then correct tlie errors in the 
sentences and give reasons as much as possible without turning back. 

Errors in the use of the Article. 

3. The is a definite arti<;le belonging to 7nan. An i'^an indefinite article and refers to oak. 2^3. The half of a thing 
is not ecjual to a whole. 2 A. Two ofl&cers attended the prisoner, the one at his right, and the other at his left. 
3. Directions to the Captain of one of the York packets. 2J. Deliver it to the corporal of the 5th regiment. 27 & 11. 
John made o- before he had learned an o. 11. Lucy is a curious kind of a girl ; 1 knovr not what she means. 3 A. 
Whoever returns it, shall receive the reward of one dollar. 11. Reason was given to a man to control his passions. 
15. My friend bought a red and a green parrot. 1 C. Wisest and best men are sometimes betrayed into errors. 16. A 
beautiful stream flows between the old and xiqm mansion. 3 A. Whoever seeks fame shall receive the reward of fame. 
12. Persons who suflbred by that calamity have been much commiserated. Foreign travel and things which he has seen, 
have enlarged his mind. 11. What kind of a sleigh did you buy of Mr. Norris T 3. A statement from a captain of one 
of our naval ships. 22, To every thing earthly there must be the beginning and the end. 12. Civilized people of North 
America have long out-numbered savages of that country. 23. He is to go a private secretary to the new minister to 
Russia. 22. I would make neither Walker, nor Webster the invariable standard of pronunciation. 12. Essence of hemlock 
is a powerful medicine. But very few of people T\^ho inhabit low latitudes either in America or Europe, live to the age 
of eighty years. 1 A. Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1850. 1 A. In conformity to the law passed 
by Mass; in 1797. 12. Earth, air, fire, and water were four elements of ancient philosophers'. 1 A. An account of ijhe 



LESSOKS IN FALSE SYNTAX 



memorable sea fight, wliicb occurred in 1614. 4. There are some evils whicli equally affect prince and people. 27. She 
"svas cured of toothache with the oil of cloves. 18 A man may be a better soldier than a logician. 17. He conferred 
on him the tifcle of captain. 4. The bill equally concerns manufacturer and consumer. 10. lie has been much censured 
for paying a little attention to his business. So bold a breach of order called for little severitj' in punishing the offender. 
25. Does the Rev. Mr. Johnson live here? 27. She pressed her babes on parting ^yith tenderness becoming a mother. 
24 A. Light moves vfith an astonishing velocity. 4. No postponement of the performance on account of weather. 
14. The tickets can be had at the office. 4. Purity extends its influence over so much of outward conduct as to form the 
great and material j^art of a character. We have within us an intelligent principle, distinct from body and from matter. 
23. Who will be a wife t) the luti widowed missionary? Webster was a secretary of State seven years. 12. The noun 
and verb are the two principal parts of speech. 3. Mr. Penman is an author of the book entitled The Brilliant Steel. 
11. JSTed is always getting into some kind of a scrape. 20. He was attacked by men whose object seemed to be a robbery. 
11. We found him afterwards the same pleasant, sociable sort of a man. 

Errors in the number of the Houn. 

45. Andover is twenty-two mile from Boston. It will paper a room twenty foot square. Ten cheese weighed a thou- 
sand pound. 45 & 46. If the distance be over jQfty mile, the postage Avill be 1^ cents. 45. He walked by the help of two 
staffs. 25. Three chaise arrived at the hotel last evening, b. Put those pence into the box. a. They are our brothers 
in the church. 11. Jane, you will see that the biscuits are well baked. My friend has sent you three fine salmons. 
25. A thousand pair of boots for sale. 22. The robber was found possessed of three braces of pistols. Three dozens 
of Johnson's dictionary were sold by auction. 9. The wine of last year's purchase is in the hands of the consumer. 
Meat is very dear this season. 19. The general ordered three Court-martials in one week. 20. She gave the poor woman 
three cupsful of tea. 21. Mr. Miles had four potfuls of honey. 20. They gathered a hundred baskets-ful of unshelled 
corn from an acre. 11. The ostrich leaves her offsprings to the mercy of other animals. 18. Green peas were in the 
market last week. One pod contained twelve peas. Peas grow well in Maine. 25. His wives' sister is in to-RH- 
28. Parsnips are rich vegetables. 30. Tlie scissors you cut it with are poor things. 28. Mr. and Mrs. Gale are pleasant 
additionsto your family. 13. Brain, as a verb, means to kill by beating out the brains. The stage passes east on 

Tuesday, Thursday, and Saturday. 38. Mr. and Mrs. W will see their friends on Wednesday evening, between the 

hour of eight and eleven. 45. Ten sort of animals are domesticated b}^ farmers. How many kind of roses are in your 
flower garden ? 41. The whole company dined on turkeys and mince pies. Fishes are scarcer in the market than 
chickens. 27. The ten men walking yonder are brothers — Eemarkable! what are their names? Browns. One of the 
brothers booked his name Curtis — Their real names were Gore. 35. The brothers Kelsons testified again.st the prisoner. 
27. What are the names of those things in your basket ? Peaches. 26. Earth is not always to be our homes. The 
diameters of the two wheels are alike. 47. She gave five dollars for a four feet table. 47 & 45. A three years old 
steer at the Market girted seven foot. 23. Forty yokes of oxen were employed in removing the building. The fleet 
consisted of twenty sails of war ships. 32. They came to him with lies in their mouths. 29. Gentlemen, I am well 
satisfied with the judgements you have rendered in this cause. 22. There were ten couples at the wedding. 46. To 
Mason's Mills 1| miles. 47- He measured it with a two foot rule. 31. We have met the enemies and they are ours. 
34. The Misses -Sarah and Jane Bonds' compliments to the Misses Johnsons. The part was sung by the Miss Woodwards. 
Th* Mr. Wilsons are expected from Mexico. The Captain JSIorses sailed last week. 28 & 27. Its nominatives are three 
parts of the sentence connected by the conjunction ands. 38. To the Bishop of Canterbury and York. It was situated 
at the corner of Washington and Court street. 41. It was a two story house built of bricks. 42. Fifteen hundred bricki 
were laid as a floor of the cellar. 45 & 41. It tpok a thousand ton of stones for the foundation. 12. The aristocracy of 
Europe which commenced in barbarous ages, was founded on military talents and success. 27. In England all gentlemen 
in independent circumstances are styled Esquires. The little girl admired the looks of the gold pencil case. His house 
is but a little ways from the bridge. 43. The path is rudely laid over with rather large stone. 

Errors in the Gender of the Noun and Pronoun. 

The pronoun must also agree ^ritiij'ts antecedent in number. 

3. The Christian friend will give her counsel Avith an expression of love and kindness. No person should be censured 



10 LESSONS IN FALSE SYNTAX. 



for being caroful of their ropiitation. 4. If an animal should be taken out of his instinct, we slioiiIJ find him wholly 
destitute of understanding. The male among birds seems to discover no beauty, but in the color of its species. 3. Every 
person whatever be her station, should attend to the duties of morality and religion. Let each of us cheerfully bear our 
part in the general burden. 6. A fox took a pig and carried him to his hole. 11. Love thinketh no ill of her neighbor. 
13. A woman tailor cannot press a coat so well as a man. 20. Mrs. Hemans the poet was born in 1794. 16. Princess 
Oharlotte was heiress to the British throne. 20. A lady that should perform such an exploit, would deserve the title 
hero. That lady so gaudily dressed, is a-n actor. 16. Miss Cashing ig the authoress of the work called the Pinks and 
Roses. 20. It IS Mademoiselle Varney, the richest heir in Bordeaux. An Italian nobleman fell in love with an American 
heir. 17. Mrs. Wilde claims to be an heiress to that property. 19. The king thanked his benefactor for the draught of 
cold water she gave him. 16. Ask the little orphan girl why she loves her mother : She will answer. Because she is 
my protectress and benefactress. 19. When he had returned to Spain the queen his patron was dead. 16 or 17. Miss Dana 
is heiress to one third of the Hamlet estate. 17. She Avas an actress in the play called Cleopatra. 20. Woman is there 
urged to be the patron of charities. 16. The authoress of those letters was a lady of superior ability. 20 & 17. The 
sweet songstress is about to become an authoress. 17. Mrs. Hannah Adams vf as not a mathematician, nor a poetess; 
but she Avas an authoress of respeet-ibility. 17. Having learned that the young lady w^as heiress to a comfortable for- 
tune, the mother was quite ready to forgive her son's rashness. 17. The lady pretended to be one of the merchant's 
patronesses. 

Errors in the use of Adjectives. 

The first refer to instruction under tlie Pronoun. 

8. What is the most attractive metal 1 asked a young geologist. Gold, answers Mr. Punch, liaving aii eye'to Australia. 

9. My friend went out just now, but I don't know which way he went. 8. Y/hat d.\Y of last week did George go to 
Bath? What mood, what tensCj what number, and what person is the verb ofl Who' is to be executor of the estate? 
the widow or her son 1 

The foilowin refer to figures under the Adjective. 

6. Time and chance happen to all men ; but every person does not perceive w^ho governs these powerful causes. The 
severity of a Vermont winter is considerably mitigated by the convivial hospitality of this season. 10. I have been to 
visit a little lame boy, who lives in an old green house. An old cray^y v/oman called at our house yesterday. 1?. The 
Washington national monument is in progress. 10. The song of the old blind man of Scio will long be sung. ^ 14. Dur- 
ing the two first years of his business he was very successful ; but in the two next.yaars he lost all he had gained. The 
ten first settlers of that town went from Dov^er. The throe first rows are peach trees, the three next are pium^ trees, and 
the three last are cherry trees. 6 & 7. Wo learn from New York papers that Kossuth wdll remain in this city during 
the present week. Some have a distaste to English Grammar ; others like this study. 

Errors in tlio use of trie Tenses. 
8. The philosopher said that heat expanded metals. A young geologist asked which^was' the most attractive'^ metal. 
The preceptor tofd us that the definition of gender given by many grammars, was wrong. It was believed by Columbus 
that the world was round. The Bishop declared that virtue was always advantageous. 10. George said that he is 
happy. The court decided that the law is unconstitutional. I have once or twice told the story to our friend. They 
have resided in Italy, till a few months ago, for the benefit of their health. I have in my youth trifled with health, and 
now old age prematurely assails me. Among the memoranda v/hich the deceased has loft, she wrote as follows. 4 & 19. 
Sir, I have had the honor to receive from your hands the official notice of niy unanimous nomination as the Whig candi- 
date for governor. 10. The court of Rome gladly laid hold on the opportunities which the imprudencj, y7eakuess,5or 
necessities of the princes afibrd it to extend its authority. 11. He is a person whom I remember these many years. I 
have compassion on the multitude because they continue with me now three days. 12. [ arrived in the city three days 
before I found my friend. After we visited the city, we returned, content and thankful, to our retired and peaceful 
habitation. 14. "He had arrived just before it happened. Whom did she that had been Lucy Forbs, marry? 17. Doubt- 
less that rail-road will pay for itself in 1880. Next new-year's day I shall be at school throe years. 1.6. The guard 



LESSONS IN PALSB 8YNTAX. * H 

v/ill havG given the signal 9,1 sunrise bj the firing of a gun. The great canal will have paid for itself in one Imndretl 
years. 4. If the distance is over fifty miles, the postage will be 1^ cent. 11 & 19. In the treasury belonging to the 
Cathedral in this city, is preserved with the greatest veneration, for uj^wards of six hundred years, a dish, which they 
pretend to be made of emerald. 11. They maintained that scripture conclusion, that all mankind rise from one head. 
8. The doctor in his lecture, said that fever always produces thirst. 19. We have done ho more than it was our duty 
to have done. I alwa3's intended to have rewarded my son according to his merit. Those enemies of Christianity were 
confounded whilst they were expecting to have found an opportunity to have betrayed its author. 20. lie is supposed 
by many to be concerned in the plot in which he Avas implicated. 10. The number of scholars in attendance the last 
term is seventy-eight. 8. The number of Xerxes' army was an odd number. 

Errors in the use of Participles. 

5. He postpones the performance till to-morrow evening on account of not having received Jiis apparatus yesterday. 
6. My employer, I hope, will pardon me for being absent a few days. 5. The Mistress will please to excuse Jane for 
having visited her friends in Salem last week. He was twitted of having been guilty of theft. 6. The artist finishing 
his picture, submitted it to his patron. 5. The door having remained unlocked, the rogue easily found access to the 
money. G. We landed at Trop^a, happy and thankful for escaping the dangers of the sea. 

Errors in tlie use of Adjectives and Adverbs. 

1. He acted agreeable to his promise. He speaks very fluent, but does not reason very coherently. Not being fully 
acquainted with the subject, he could not affirm stronger than he did. He conducted himself very unsuitable to his 
profession. She writes very neat, and spells accurate. The task was the easier performed, from the cheerfulness with 
which they engaged in it. You read that very good. Alas ! they are miserable poor. He was prodigal, and his prop- 
erty is now near exhausted. Endeavor to live hereafter suitable to a person in thy station. She was exceeding careful 
not to give offence. He was so deeply impressed with the subject, that few could speak nobler upon it. We may rea- 
son very clear and exceeding strong, without knowing that there is such a thing as a syllogism. His empire could not 
be established previous to the institution of pretty numerous societies. 

2. A verb in the infinitive mood absolute, stands independently of the remaining part of the sentence. They were 
seen wandering about solitarily and distressed. Conjugate the verb quit irregularly. Also conjugate it regularly. 
They met on Saturday evening, agreeably to adjournment of a previous meeting. Draw a second line perpendicularly 
to the first. The book has a neat impression, and is printed on a finely woven paper. * Agreeably to this, we find some 
of the Anglo Saxon ladies w^ere admitted into their most august assemblies. Agreeably to this law, children are bound 
to support their parents. 

Errors in the use of Prepositions. 

1. The house was struck with lightning. The city vvas destroyed with fire. 2. They are terrified by thunder. The 
cat was frightened by the sight of a monkey. They are devoured by spleen. They are troubled by moths. He walks 
by a staff, and sees with moon-light. 3. He shared the prize among his five brothers. 7. He divided the money 
between his three friends. 6. Being disappointed in receiving his apparatus in season, the performance will not take 
place this evening. 5. The people in Maine are hospitable and democratic. His school will close on the last Saturdity 
m November. Madras is the second city in India. VVe happened to pass an open door in the room where they were. 
9. They have just arrived in Eufialo and are going to Rochester. 10. They will reside two months at England. I was 
in the place appointed before the time. 9. Yie touched in Halifax on our vmj for New York. 9 & 24. He spends 
much of his time in a village on Long Island. 25. Have you been to meeting to-day? Joseph is to work in the print 
room. 26. When did you come in town? He went onto Washington street. Pat that change in the drawer. Carry 
your cigar boxes onto the Common and burn them. Until the tottering fabric crumbles at length to dust. It was in- 
serted in the stub of a pear. 24. Verses written by him during his abode on the island of Juan Fernandez. Two 
stores ©n State street were destroyed by fire. He does not live on that street. 21 & 11. Died at Bath in the Pearl 



* The last two sentencss are taken from Webster's Gratninar, adflucerl by him as exhibiting examples of improper uses of adverbs. 

4# 



43 Lt!SS0K8 IN. FALBE SYNTAX 



House, on the Sd inst., a jewel pedlar, whose name is unknown. The poefc Yirgil was born at Mantua. 28. A 
caterpillar turns to a butterfly. 24. She would relate to her little boy, stories of the wise and good men spoken of 
on its sacred pages. It is found on every page of the bible. 16. While the American minister sojourned in St. 
Petersburg he wrote several articles under the signature Europa. 17. A cloud of pigeons was seen in Washing- 
ton, flying in a northeasterly direction. A new comet was lately visible in Paris. The shock of an earthquake 
was perceived in Boston, on the 5th ult. There was a great storm in New Orleans, on the 2d inst. 20. A great 
fire occurred at London in ] 614. 5. He reads a chapter in the bible every evening. 24. The ladies and gentle- 
men were walking on the Common. 33. Accept of this in behalf of your friend. 24. I am now writing on a 
small ?pot not to be found on any map in Great Britain. 

Errors in tlie use of Conjiinctioiis. 

Neither the cold, or the fervid, but characters uniformly warm, are formed for friendship. I will present it to 
him myself, or direct it to be given to him. Neither despise or oppose what you do not understand. 5. I must 
however be so candid to own I have been mistaken. The house is not as commodious as we expected it 
would be. 9. There was something so amiable and yet so piercing in his look, as affected me at once with 
love and terror. There is no condition so secure as cannot admit of change. 11. We are generally pleased 
with any little accomplishments of body or mind. 12. The dog in the manger would not eat the hay him- 
self, nor suffer the ox to eat it. 6. Be ready to succor such persons who need your assistance. It is not sufficient 
that our conduct, as far as it respects others, appears exceptionable. 7. The matter was no sooner proposed, but 
he privately withdrew to consider it. He gained nothing farther by his speech, but only to be commended for his 
cloc[uence. He has little more of the scholar besides the title. They had no sooner risen, but they applied them- 
selves to their studies. 8. From no other institution. be.5idos the admirable one of juries, could so great a benefit 
be expected. These ^'^avage people seem to have no other element but war. 6. Such men that act treacherously 
ought to be avoided. 13. Germany ran the same risk as Italy had done. 9. No errors are so trivial as they de- 
serve to be corrected. 15. I know not if it was John or his brother that performed the work. I asked him if he 
knew me. The Judge asked the jury if the prisoner was guilty or not guilty. 14, I do not know as I shall do 
either. He said he did not know as the art of making good bread could bo communicated. 16. There can be no 
doubt but that tlie pleasures of the mind excel those of sense. Many persons will not believe but that they are 
free from prejudices. 15. I would inquire if you have been introduced to him. 

False Syntax referring to the Interjection. 

Oh ! thee, who art so unmindful of thy duty ! — Ah ! wretched I, how ungrateful I — ! happy them, surrounded 
with so many blessings ! — Hail thee, that art highly favored ! — How swiftly our time passes away ! and ah I we, 
how little concerned to improve it I — Welcome thee, who had been so long expected ! 



LEBSONS IN FALSE SYNTAX. 48 



NOTES TO BE APPLIED TO PRACTICE. 

Note 1. When a collective noun conveys unity of idea, its verb and pronoun must be of the singular number ; 
but when it conveys plurality of idea, its verb and pronoun must be of the plural number. 

False Syntas referring to Note 1. 

The people rejoices in that which should cause it sorrow. The flock, and not the fleece, arc, or ought to be, the 
objects of the shepherd's care. The court have just ended, after having sat through the trial of a very long cause. 
The crowd were so great that the judges with diffically made tjieir way through them. The Corporation of New 
York consist of a Mayor, Aldermen, and a Common Council. The British Parliament- are composed of king, lords, 
and commons. When the nation complain, the rulers should listen to their voice. In the days of youth, the multi- 
tude eagerly pursues pleasure as its chief good. The church have no power to inflict corporal punishment. The 
fleet were seen sailing up the channel. A great number do not always argue strength. The meeting have estab- 
lished several salutary regulations. The council was not unanimous, and it separated without coming to any 
deteniiination. The fleet is all arrived and moored in safety. The committee was divided in its sentiment, and it 
has referred the business to the general meeting. The committee v/as very full when this point was decided ; and 
their judgement has not been called in question. Why do this generation wish for greater evidence, when so much is 
already given ? The remnant of the people was persecuted with great severity. Never were any people so much 
infatuated as the Jewish nation. The shoal of herrings were of immense extent. No society are chargeable with 
the disapproved conduct of particular members. 

NoTs 2. An Adverb should be so placed in composition as to give the best flow to the sentence, and render the 
meaning the most forcible and perspicuous. This is generally promoted by placing the adverb immediately before 
the adjective which it qualifies, immediately after the verb when single, and between the auxiliary and the verb when 
compound. Eut it will be found that this will not always answer ; besides an adverb does not always cjualify such 
words. 

Remark. An adverb should seldom, if ever, come between the prefix to and the infinitive mood ; and the sense 
should never be sacrificed to sound. 

False Syntax referring to Hole 2. 

He was pleasing not often because he was vain. William nobly acted, though he was unsuccessful. From whence 
we may date likewise the period of this event. It cannot be impertinent or ridiculous therefore to remonstrate. He 
offered an apology, which being not admitted, he became submissive. These things should be never separated. Unless 
he have more government of himself, he will be always discontented. Never sovereign was so much beloved by the 
people. He was determined to invite back the king, and to call together his friends. Not only he found her 
employed, but pleased and tranquil also. We always should prefer our duty to our pleasure. It is impossible con- 
tinually to be at work. The heavenly bodies are in motion perpetually. Having not known, or having not considered 
the measures proposed, he fliiled of success. My opinion was given upon rather a cursory perusal of the book. It 



44 LESSONS IN PALSI: SYNTAX 



is too common with mankind to be engrossed, and overcome totally, by present events. When tlie Romans were 
pressed with a foreign army, the women contributed all their rings and jewels voluntarily to assist the government. 
We ought to thankfully receive the many blessings with which we are favored. Please to not interrupt me. We 
should strive to daily improve our precious time. She is said to excellently have performed her part. To always 
kQop in view, the uncertainty of time, is the way to rightly estimate it. 



FALSE SYNTAX PEOMISCUOHSLY DISPOSED. 

Virtue and mutual confidence is the soul of friendship. Where these are wanting, disgust or hatred often follow 
little differences. — Time and chance liappeneth to all men ; but every person do not perceive whom it is that govern 
those powerful causes. — The active mind of man, never or seldom rests satisfied with their present condition, howso- 
ever prosperous. — Habits must be acquired of temperance and of self-denial, that we may be able to resist pleasure, 
and to endure pain when either of them interfere with our duty. — The error of resting wholly on faith, or on works, 
is one of those seductions which most easily misleads men ; under the semblance of piety, on the one hand, and of 
virtue on the other hand. — It was no exaggerated tale ; for she was really in that sad condition that her friend rep- 
resented her. — An army present a painful sight to a feeling mind. — The enemies whom we have most to fear, arc 
those of our own hearts. — Thou art the Messiah, the Son of Grod, who was to come into the world, and has been so 
long promised and desired. — Thomas disposition is better than his brothers; and he appears to be the happiest man : 
but some degree of trouble is all men's portion. — Though remorse sleep sometimes during prosperity, it will awake 
surely in adversity. — It is an invariable law to our present condition, that every pleasure that are pursued to excess, 
convert themselves into poison. — If a man brings "nto the solitary retreat of age, a vacant, an unimproved mind, 
wheie no knowledge dawns, no ideas rise ; which witliin itself has nothing to feed upon, many a heavy, and many a 
comfortless day he must necessarily pass. — I cannot yield to such dishonorable conduct, neither at the present moment 
of diflSculty, nor, I trust, under no circumstances whatever. — Themistocles concealed the enterprises of Pausanius, 
either thinking it base to betray the secrets trusted to his confidence, or imagined it impossible for such dangerous 
and ill- concerted schemes to take effect. — Pericles gained such an ascendant over the minds of the Athenians, that he 
might be said to attain a monarchial power in Athens. — Christ did applaud the liberality of the poor widow, who he 
had seen casting her two mites in the treasury. — A multiplicity of little kind offices, in persons frequently conversant 
with each other, are the band of society and of friendship — To do good to them that hate us, and, on no occasion, to 
seek revenge is the duty of a Christian. — If a man profess a regard for the duties of religion, and neglect that of 
morality, that man's religion is vain. — Aifluence might give us respect, in the eyes of the vulgar, but will not recom- 
mend us to the wise and good. — The polite accomplished libertine^ is but miserable amid all his pleasures : the rude 
inhabitant of Lapland is happier than him. — The cheerful and the gay, when warmed by pleasure and by mirth, lose 
that sobriety and that self-denial, which is essential to the support of virtue. — I knew thou wert not slow to hear the 
requests of thy obedient children. — How much real virtue and merit are exposed to suffer the hardships of a stormy 
life !— -This is one of the duties which requires peculiar circumspection. — More complete happiness than that I have 
described, seldom falls to the lot of mortals. — There are principles in man, which ever have, and ever will incline 
him to offend. — Whence have there arose such a great variety of opinions and tenets in religion ? — Its stature is less 
than that of a man, but its strength and agility much greater. — They that honor me, them will I honor. — He sum- 
monses mo to attend, and I must summons the others. — Then did the officer lay hold of him and executed him 



LES90K8 IK ?ALSE SYNTAX. ^ 



immediately. — Who la that person whom I saw you introduee and present him to tlio duke ? — I offer observations 
that a long and chequered pilgrimage have enabled me to make on man. — Every church and sect of people have a 
set of opinions peculiar to themselves. — May thou as well as me, be meek, patient and forgiving. — Those men were 
under high obligations to have adhered to their friend in every situation of life. — Their example^ their influence, their 
fortune, every talent they possess, dispenses blessings on all around them. — When a string of such sentences succeed 
one another, the effocL is disagreeable. — I have lately been in Gribraltar, and have seen the commander in chief. — 
Propriety of pronunciation is, the giving to every woi-d the sound which the politest usage of the language appropriates 
to it. — The book is printed very neat, and on a fine wove paper. — The fables of the ancients are, many of them, 
highly instructive. — He resembled one of those solitary animals, that has been forced from its forest to gratify human 
curiosity — There is not, nor ought not to be, such a thing as constructive treason. — He is a new created knight, and 
his dignity sets awkward on him. — Hatred or revenge are things deserving of censure, wherever they are found to 
exist.— If you please to employ your thoughts on that subject, you would easily conceive our miserable condition. — 
His speech contains one of the grossest and infamousest calumnies which ever was uttered. — A too great variety of 
studies dissipate and weaken the mind. — Those two authors have ench of them their merit. — James was resolved to 
not indulge himself in such a cruel amusement, — The not attending to this rule, is the source of a very common 
error. — Calumny and detraction are sparks, which if you do not blow, they will go out of themselves. — Celia is a 
vain woman, Avhom, if wo do not flatter, she will be disgusted. — That celebrated work was nearly ten years published 
before its importance was at all undei stood. — Ambition is so insatiable that it will make any sacriSces to attain its 
objects. — A great mass of rocks thrown together by the hand of nature with wildness and confusion, strike the mind 
with more grandeur, than if they wore adjusted to one another v/ith the accuratest symmetry. 

» Eeason's whole pleasure, all the joys of sense, 

Lies in three y/ords, health, peace and cocipetencg. 

Having thus began to throw off the restraints of reason he was soon hurried into deplorable excesses. — These arts 
have enlightened, and will enlighten, every person who shall attentively study them. — When v;e succeed in our plans, 
its not to be attributed always to ourselves ; the aid of others often promote the end, and claim our acknowledgment. — 
Their inteutiors were good; but wanting prudence, they mist the mark for v;hich they aimed. — I have not, nor shall 
not consent to a proposal so 'unjust. — We have subjected ourselves to much expense, that thou may be well educated. 
— This treaty was made at earl Moreton the governor's castle. — Be especially careful that thou givest no offence to 
the aged or helpless. The business was no sooner opened, but it was cordially acqaiesced in. — As to his general 
conduct, he deserved punishment as much, or more than his companion. He left a son of a singular character, and 
behaved so ill that he was put in prison. — If bo does but approve my endeavors, it will be an ample reward. — I beg 
the favor of your acceptance of a copy of a view of the manufactories of the West riding of the county of York. — I 
intended to have written the letter, before he urged me to it ; and, therefore, he has not all the merit of it. — All 
the power of ridicule, aided by the desertion of friends, and the diminution of his estate, were not able to shake his 
principles. — In his conduct was treachery, and in his words, faithless professions. — Though the measure be mysteri- 
ous, it is worthy of attention. — Be solicitous to aid sug4i deserving persons, who appear to be destitute of friends. — 
Ignorance, or the want of light, produce sensuality, covetousness, and those violent contests with others about trifles, 
which occasions so much misery and crimes in the world. — He will one day reap the reward of his labor, if he is 
diligent and attentive. Until that period comes, let him be contented and patient. — To the resolutions which we 
have, upon due consideration, once adopted as rules of conduct, let us adhere firmly. — He has little more of the 
great man besides the title. — Though he was my superior in knowledge, he would not have thence a right to impose 
his sentiments. — That picture of the emperor's, is a very exact resemblance of him. — How happy are the virtuous, 
who can rest on the protection of the powerful arm who made the earth and the heaven I— Prosperity and adversity 



m LESSONS IN FALSE SYNTAX. 



may be improved equally : both the one and the other proceeds from the same author. — He acted conformable with 
his instructions, and cannot be censured justly. — The orators did not forget to enlarge tbemselres on so popular a 
subject. — The language of Divine Providence to the exertions of all human agents, is, "Hitherto shalt thou come, 
and no further."— Idle persons imagine, howsoever deficient they be in point of duty, they consult at least their 
own satisfaction. — Grood as the cause is, it is one from which numbers are deserted. — Every thing we here enjoy, 
change, decay, and come to an e!]d. All float on the surf&ce of the river, which is running to a boundless ocean, 
with a swift current. — The winter has not been as severe as we expected it to have been. — Temperance, more than 
medicines, are the proper means of curing many diseases. — They understand the practical part better than him ; 
but he is much better acquainted with the tlieory than them. — When we have once drawn the line, by intelligence 
and precision, between our duty and sin, the line we ought on no occusion to transgress. — All those distinguished by 
extraordinary talents, have extraordinary duties to perform. — No person could speak stronger on this subject, nor 
behave nobler, than our young advocate for the cause of toleration. — His conduct was so provoking, that many will 
•condemn him, and a few will pity him. — The people's happiness is the statesman's honor. — We are in a perilous sit- 
uation. On one side, and the other, dangers meet us; and each exh-eme shall be pernicious to virtue. — Several 
pictures of the Sardinian king were transmitted to France. — When I last saw him, he had grown considerably. — If 
we consult the improvement of mind, or the health of body, it is well known exercise is the great instrument for 
promoting both. — If it were them who acted so ungratefully, they are doubly in fault. — Whether virtue promotes 
our interest or no, we must adhere to her dictates. — We should be studious to avoid too much indulgence, as well 
as restraint, in our management of children. — No human happiness is so complete, as does not contain some imper- 
fection. — His father cannot hope for this success, unless his son gives better proofs of genius, or applies himself with 
indefatigable labor. — The house frame;^ a remonstrance, where they spoke with great freedom of the king's prerog- 
ative. — The conduct which has been mentioned, is one of those articles which seduces men most easily, under 
appearance of benevolence. — This is the person who we are so much obliged to, and who we expected to have 
seen, when the favor was conferred. — He is a person of great property, but does not possess the esteem of his 
neighbors. — They were solicitous to ingratiate w^ith those, who it was dishonorable to favor. — The great diversity 
which takes place among men, is not owing to a distinction that nature made in their orig^inal powers, as much as to 
the superior diligence, with which some have improved those powers beyond others. — While we are unoccupied in 
what is good, evil is at hand continually. — Not a creature is there that moves, nor a vegetable that grows, but what, 
when minutely examined, furnish materials of pious admiration. — What can be the reason of the committee having 
delayed this business? — I know not whether Charles was the author, but I understood it to be he. — A good and 
well cultivated min d^sT ar more preferable than rank or riches. — Charity to the poor, when it is governed by 
knowledge and pri:|ddHpthere are no persons who will not admit it to be a virtue. — His greatest concern, and high- 
est enjoyment, wer^^oe approved in the sight of his Creator. — Let us not set our hearts on such a mutable, such 
an unsatisfying world. — When we see bad men to be honored and prosperous in the world, it is some discouragement 
to virtue. — The furniture was all purchased at Wentworth's the joiner's. — Every member of the body, every bone, 
joint, and muscle, lie exposed to many disorders ; and the greatest prudence or precaution, or the deepest skill of 
the physician, are not sufficient to prevent them. — It is right said, that though faith justify us, yet works must justify 
our faith. — If an academy is established for the cultivation of our language, let them stop the license of translators; 
whose idleness and ignorance, if it be suffered to proceed, will reduce us to babble a dialect of French. — It is of 
great consequence that a teacher firmly believes both the truth and importance of those principles which he inculcates 
upon others; and that he not only speculatively believes them, but has a lively and serious feeling of them. — It is 
not the uttering, or the hearing certain words, that constitute the worship of the Almighty. It is the heart that 
praises, or prays. If the heart accompany not the words that are spoken, we offer a sacrifice of fools. — Neither 
flatter or contemn the rich or the great.— He has travelled m-uch, and passed through many stormy seas and lands. — 



LESSONS IN FALSE SYNTAX, 47 



You must be sensible that tberc is, and can be no other person but me, who could give the information desired. — To 
be patient, resigned, and thankful, under afilictions and disappointments, demonstrate genuine piety. — Alvarez was a 
man of corrupt principles, and of detestable conduct ; and, what is still worse, gloried in his shame. — As soon as the^ 
sense of a Supreme Being is lost, so soon the great check is taken off which keep under restraint the passions of men. 
Mean desires, low pleasures, takes place of the greater and the nobler sentiments which reason and religion inspires. 
— We should be careful not to follow^ the example of many persons, to censure the opinions, manners, and customs 
of others, merely because they are foreign to us. — Steady application, as well as genius and abilities, are necessary 
to produce eminence.— There is in that seminary, several students considerably skilled in mathematical knowledge. 
— If Providence clothe the grass of the field, and shelters and adorns the flowers, that every where grow wild 
amongst it, will he not clothe and protect his servants and children much more ? — We are too often hurried with the 
violence of passion, or with the allurements of pleasure. — High hopes, and florid views, is a great enemy to tran- 
quility. — Year after year steal something from us ; till the decaying fabric totters of itself, and crumbles at length 
into dust. — I intended to have finished the letter before the bearer called, that he miglit not have been detained ; 
but I was prevented by company. — George is the most learned and accomplished of all the other students that belong, 
to the seminary.-— This excellent and well-written treatise, with others that might be mentioned, were the foundation 
of his love of study. — There can be no doubt but that the pleasures of the mind excel those of the sense. — Many would 
exchange gladly their honors, beauty, and riches, for that more quiet and humbler station, which thou art now 
dissatisfied with. — -Though the scene was a very affecting one, Louis showed little emotion on the occasion. — The 
climate of England is not so pleasant as those of France, Spain, or Italy. — Much of the good and evil that happens 
to us in this world, are owing to apparently undesigned and fortuitous events ; but it is the Supreme Being which 
secretly directs and regulates all things.— To despise others on account of their poverty, or to value ourselves for our 
wealth, are dispositions highly culpable. — This task was the easier performed, from the cheerfulnes.s with which he 
engaged in it — She lamented the unhappy fate of Lucretia, who seemed to her another name for chastity. — He has 
not yet cast off all the regard for decency ; and that is the most can be advanced in his favor — The girls school was 
better conducted formerly than the boys.^ — The disappointments he has met with, or the loss of his much-loved friend^ 
has occasioned a total derangement of his mental powers. — The concourse of people were so great, that with difficulty 
we passed through them. — All the women, children, and treasure, which remained in the city, fell under the victor's 
po^ver. — They have already made great progress in their studies, and, if attention and diligence continues: will soon 
fulfil the expectations of their friends.— It is amazing his propensity to this vice, against every principle of interest 
and honor. — These kind of vices, though they inhabit the upper circles of life, are not less pernicious, than those we 
meet with amongst the lowest of men.— He acted agreeable to the dictates of prudence, though he were in a situation 
exceeding delicate. — If I had known the distress of my friend, it would be my duty, and i^. certainly would have 
given me pleasure to relieve him. —They admired the countryman's, as they called him, candor, and uprightness. — 
The new set of curtains did not corre.-p®nd to the old pair of blinds. — ^The tutor commends him for being more 
studious than any other pupils of the school. 

Tvfo principles in human nature reigfi, 
Self-love to urge, and reason to restrain*, 
Nor that a good, nor this a bad we call-, 
Each works its end, to move or govern all. 

Temperance and exercise, howsoever little they may be regarded, they are the best means of preserving health. — 
He has greatly blessed me : yes, even I, who, loaded with kindness, hath not been sufficiently grateful. — No per- 
sons feel the distresses of others, so much as those that have experienced distress themselves. — ^Disgrace not your 
afcation, by thafe grossne*^ of sensuality, thafc levity of dissipation, or that insolence of rank, which beepoak a liHio 



4S LEBS0K8 IN FALSE SYNTAX. 

mind. — A circle, a scjiiaro, a triangle, or a hexagon, please the eye by their regularity, as bcaTitlfuI figures. — His 
conduct was equally unjust as dishonorable. — Though, at first, he begun to defend himself, yet, when the proofs 
appeared against him, he dared not any longer to contend. — Many persons will not believe but what they are free 
from prejudices. — The pleasure or pain of one passion, diffar from those of another. — The court of Spain, who 
gave the order, were not aware of the consequence. — ^If the acquisitions he has mode, and qualified him to bo 
a useful member of society, should have been misapplied, he will be highly culpable. — There was much spoke and 
wrote on each side of the question ; but I liave^ chose to take part with neither. — Was there no bad men in the 
world, who vex and distress the good, they might appear in the light of harmless innocence ; but could have no 
opportunity for displaying fidelity and magnanimity, patience and fortitude. — The most ignorant, and the most 
savage tribes of men, when they have looked round on the earth, and on the heavens, could not avoid ascribing their 
origin to some invisible, designing cause, and felt a propensity to adore their Creator. — Let us not forget that some- 
thing more than gentleness and modesty, something more than complacency of temper and affability of manners, 
are requisite to form a worthy man, or a true Christian. — One of the first, and the most common extreme in moral 
conduct, is placing all virtue in justice, or in generosity. — It is an infiexible regard to principle, which has ever 
marked the characters of them who distinguished themselves eminently in public life ; who patronized the cause of 
justice against powerful oppressors ; in critical times have supported the falling rights and liberties of men ; and 
reflected honor on their nation and country. — When it is with regard to trifles, that diversity or contrariety of 
opinions show themselves, it is childish in the last degree, if this becomes the ground of estranged affection. 
When, from such a cause, there arise any breach of friendship, human weakness is discovered then in a mortifying 
light. In matters of serious moment, the sentiments of the be^t and worthiest might var}^ from that of their friends, 
according as lines of life diverge, or as their temper, and habits of thought, presents objects under different points 
of view. But with candid and liberal minds, unity of affection still will be preserved. 

While all our hearts, and. all our songs, 

Join t' admire the feast; 
Each of us cry, with thankful toiijjues, 

" LorI, why was I a giwst ? " 



The indulgence of the reader is called to the following : 

1 , (•„,. ,c Th» Ith wntcncc of errors in the use of the article is correct. At the 
Under figure 32 in 30th page, ^f^ <;''.. °^Ji- ^'I'/'t the bottom of page 6th, read, instead of the last sentence. See 
end of first line in 39th page, read W. aHer 2, And ^^ '»« ^^"'XLL is right. In errors in the number of the noun, 
figures 27 & 14 on the article In third line of 3.th page ""'"JJ"P^"' ^ f ^^ the end of 6th line, also in 2d line 
Zl.epeas, a '-/-*,;f,^fiX°erntt*u"sf;V^^^ ^Z'^l^Z', supply 11, and after New York, read U 

ZT ^^lderTanl2l''befo;e 1^*^ /« the stub of'a p'car, is right, referring to figure 2, . 
Contractions in this toort. Per. for perfect ; oo».. for compound ; elt. elliptical. 



.r:'-^f\^m^tj^ 



mm 






sOr\A,AO.A^A«ri'^'A^Q,^.^^, 









m^^^. 



mmmmm 



AAW^AA^Ai 



i-^m^ 



A ,*-^ ^JHA' W 



^^i^^&m^^'^'^' 






^A^A^'^^ 



\^^AAAAAA^, 












.;^^^.^A.,^, 



aAaAaa^La! ' aW ^ 



a^^^.^aA 



,^'^^;'^^v^^^5;c 






^^^^'^-5^;^^^-^'^^'^^ 



^A^^^^..O'^: 



^^.A.-^e'^^^.A 



-%^#.%^«-, ..- 



*^.«.*^' 



>ftA*r-' 



-^'^;^,'^aaAJa/ >o'^WA( 



»ea^ ^^'.;^*S 






M^ 



>f^/AAAA^O'^'*^A.,f> 






yi^ifMAkUjMyi 



.Mmm 






tm^.- 



''^mm^^-*^ 






^mm^ 



A _/^ . 



^^A^ 



i^fm\ ■f^f^/^:^wmm 



'^' '%A..fl^': nA^if^>..'-^'^-'^'^A'^fl, 















^:»»?;i;sg 



/^-^l^o^riA^ 



i*,'^^A^A * 



/^AaA^ .AA^ 



«S^^^" 



j^Ei^^-lB^HBB 



^A^-^^. 






S«,p'^M^*s^.wp^||^ 






Rft«^W^^J:^g:Si5ii5^SE5?s^^^ 



M^^RSftB 









Aa/^^.'>aaa, 



S?i^lP^#^*-: 






'(^OA^riA 









^*>?J;««^?»5S&t'5«; 



- /^«A^'<^<^« 



-A/*' -- , 



,::,'::^^:^^'a^ 



Aa -A' 



/■#*«%A6*«a^\: 



^^^^^HsiS^: :. 


n 


li 



w 



'M 



